Frosfs Practical Grammar. 



A 

PRACTICAL 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 

WITH 

PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES 

IN 

ORTHOGRAPHY, , 

I 

ANALYSIS, AND GRAMMATICAL COMPOSITION, 

ADAPTED TO THE 

USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE STUDENTS. 



BY JOHN FROST, A. M. 

PROFESSOR OF BELLES LETTRES IN THE HIGH SCHOOL OF PHILADELPHIA ; 

AUTHOR OF "easy EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION," "HISTORY OF 

THE UNITED STATES," "AMERICAN SPEAKER," &C. &C. 



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PHILADELPHIA: 

THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO. 
1842. 



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Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1842, by 

JOHN FROST, 

in the office of the clerk of the district court of the United States in 
and for the eastern district of Pennsylvania. 



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U 



J. FAGAN, STEREOTYPER. 



T. K. AND P. G-. COLLINS, PRINTERS. 



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PREFACE. 

In the title-page, this book is called " A Practical English 
Grammar." The Author has endeavoured to give it a 
just claim to this title, by rendering it strictly practical 
throughout. He has observed that most of the gram- 
mars now in use appear to consider the English language 
as having been formed not for the purpose of being spoken 
and written, but merely for the purpose of being parsed,"^ 
Accordingly, parsing is made the grand object of gram- 
matical instruction; and it is considered, that if a boy 
can parse correctly and fluently, he is a good gram- 
marian. The consequence is, that pupils toil for years in 
English grammar; learn to parse with great fluency and 
exactness ; and, nevertheless, violate the most obvious rules 
of grammar in almost every sentence which they speak 
or write. Many of them are deep in the theory of syntax, 
who are wofully deficient in the practice of orthography. 
This deficiency is not the fault of teachers, but of the text- 
books which they are under the necessity of using; and 
it is precisely for the purpose of remedying the evil and 
giving a more practical character to grammatical instruction, 
that the following work has been prepared. 

As it was the Author's object to suggest improvements in 
the methods of teaching, rather than to offer any new theo- 
ries on the subject of grammar, he has left undisturbed the 

* The Author would not be understood to disparage parsings as a 
grammatical exercise. It is useful in its proper place and proportion, 
and it has received its due share of attention in this work. 

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iv PREFACE. 

forms and classifications in general use ; and has endeavour- 
ed, as far as possible, to render the pupils who shall use the 
book expert grammarians, by requiring them, through the 
use of copious oral and written Exercises, to reduce their 
knowledge to practice, as fast as it is acquired. To enliven 
the task of writing grammatical composition, he has not 
hesitated to introduce pictures ; experience and observation 
having convinced him of their utility in aiding the exertions 
of both pupil and teacher. y 

In accordance with this design, it has been found neces- 
sary to assign different proportions of space to the various 
parts of the subject from those which they have received 
in other grammars. 

Orthography has been more fully treated than usual ; and 
copious exercises are given. A faithful inculcation of the 
general rules for spelling, by means of exercises of this 
kind, will occasion a great saving of time to the learner. 
The most obvious rules are perpetually violated by those 
who have neglected this species of exercise. The rules of 
construction are much shorter than usual ; and the rules of 
arrangement * are more numerous and particular. 

The subject of Derivation, which is now claiming so large 
a share of attention from teachers, has, for the sake of con- 
venience, been thrown into an Appendix. This portion of 
the book will by no means be deemed superfluous, by those 
who have witnessed the delight with which young persons 
address themselves to the study of the origin and history of 
w;ords. Its utility in forming accurate habits of thought, 
and giving a mastery over language, is universally admitted. 
The article devoted to this subject will be found more sys- 

* The same rules of arrangement which are found in the Author's 
" Easy Exercises in Composition," are used in this work. 



PREFACE. V 

tematic, full and exact, than any treatise, comprised in so 
small a space, which has yet appeared. The writer would 
not express himself so strongly on this subject, if it were 
not also the fact that this article has been copied entire from 
M'Culloch's Grammar. To the same work he is also in- 
debted for many of his definitions, rules, and exercises. He 
would have adopted also Mr. M'Culloch's views with respect 
to the classification of adjectives and pronouns, and the 
conjugation of verbs, but he was desirous to leave the pre- 
vailing system of English grammar, introduced by Lowth, 
and disseminated by Murray, and his other commentators, 
untouched ; and to innovate only where he believed that the 
methods of instruction could be improved. 

The definitions and rules designed to be committed to 
memory, have been expressed with as much brevity as was 
deemed consistent with clearness and simplicity; and the 
practical Exercises appended to each separate branch, have 
been made as copious and varied as the limits of a cheap 
school-book would permit. 

From the same work to which the author acknowledges 
himself so largely indebted in every part of this volume — 
• M'CuUoch's Grammar — he copies the following article, as 
the most suitable supplement to this Preface. 

Hints in regard to the mode of teaching Grammar. 

It is desirable that the pupil, before proceeding to study grammar 
systematically, should possess as much previous acquaintance with the 
subject as will enable him at least to distinguish the four principal Parts 
of Speech ; and this preUminary information the teacher should attempt 
to give him by oral instruction, in the course of his daily lessons in read- 
ing and spelling. 

In using a text-book, the chief error to be avoided is that of making 

the study a mere exercise of memory. It is desirable, no doubt, that 

fundamental definitions and leading rules should be got by heart ; but it 

is still more desirable that the young person should be able to understand 

1* 



VI PREFACE. 

their signification, and to answer all questions that may be put in regard 
to them. 

It may perhaps be thought, that the exercises which are subjoined to 
the various sections, afford such means of ascertaining the progress of 
the learner as ought to supersede the necessity of teaching those sections 
themselves catechetically. But experience will prove this supposition to 
be erroneous. These exercises are, indeed, designed as a trial of the 
pupil's knowledge and acuteness ; but they are ^lecessarily too general 
and limited to afford a sufficient test. And it will probably be found, 
that a child may be able to perform them all, who has but a vague com- 
prehension of the principles, and a scanty acquaintance with the leading 
facts of the science. 

It may be proper also to guard against the error of supposing that the 
exclusive, or even the chief end in view, is to make the pupil acquainted 
with the practice of parsi?ig. Were this all that is designed, there would 
be no necessity for calling in the aid of a text-book, as a knowledge of 
the distinguishing properties of the different kinds of words, as well as 
of their syntactical connexion, might be communicated with sufficient 
accuracy by mere viva voce instruction. The object of teaching gram- 
mar, as a science, is not merely to enable the student to parse, but also 
to familiarize him generally with the structure of language, and to give 
him such an accurate acquaintance with the etymology, application, and 
combination of words, as will fit him to understand his mother- tongue 
with ease, and to speak and write it with propriety. 

In teaching from the following work, different methods may be fol- 
lowed ; and the type in which it is printed will be found so varied and 
disposed, as to afford the teacher considerable facilities in adapting his 
course to the scholar's acquirements, and the time that can be allotted 
to the study. 

If the master wishes merely to communicate a general knowledge of 
the subject, or if the period for study is limited, he may satisfy himself 
with what appears in the large type, and that part of the small which is 
necessary to exemplify the rules. 

If his pupil has no previous knowledge of the science, and is not re- 
stricted as to time, he may take the large type with its illustrations, 
(omitting, however, the introductory section-, headed ''Nature and Ob- 
jects of Grammar,") as a jii'st course; and leave the remaining small 
type to be taken up, along with the introductory matter, in a second and 
supplementary course. 

If the scholar has adequate prehminary knowledge, and possesses the 
command of time, the best plan will be to follow the order of the work ; 
in which case — with respect to the large type — the pupil, after having 
studied it so as to understand its meaning, should be required to commit 
it accurately to memory ; and with respect to the small type, to make it 



PREFACE. Vll 

the subject of frequent perusal and examination, in the same way as is 
often done with reading lessons in seminaries. It is only in this way 
that the whole science can be brought fully before the student in its due 
proportions. 

Teachers who have previously employed text-books in which spelling 
of words, derivation, and arrang^ement of words in sentences, are despatch- 
ed in a few paragraphs, will probably object to the great space allotted to 
these subjects in the present work, and feel disposed to omit them, either 
wholly or in part, in the process of tuition. But it is hoped that this 
expedient will not be adopted without mature consideration. There is 
no branch of grammar of greater practical utility than derivation. An 
acquaintance with its details is of incalculable moment, especially to 
those who have no prospect of obtaining a classical education ; and the 
teacher cannot confer a greater benefit upon mere Enghsh scholars, than 
by requiring them to get accurately by heart the leading roots, prefixes, 
and affixes, of the language. Nor is an acquaintance with the general 
rules which apply to the spelling of words, and their arrangement in 
sentences, unimportant. Arrangement is a part of Syntax as essential 
as either Concord or Government; and the general laios of spelling will 
scarcely be deemed useless by any one who remembers that the design 
in including Orthography in a course of grammar, is not so much to 
teach the art of speUing, as to impress upon the mind the general analo- 
gies which prevail in this, as in every other branch of the science. 

With respect to the mode of teaching the details of the grammar, no 
specific directions can be given. But it may be suggested generally, that 
much explanatory information, which no text-book can supply, must be 
given by the teacher in the course of instruction ; that the pupil should 
be required to find out additional illustrations of each of the definitions 
and rules ; that he should not be allowed to pass any section until he 
has thoroughly mastered it ; that the knowledge thus acquired should 
be impressed upon his memory by frequent revisals and repetitions ; that 
the exercises should be written out as well as read by Jiim ; and that he 
should be constantly called upon, in the course of his ordinary reading, 
to apply his grammatical knowledge to the explanation of all the varieties 
of phraseology which may happen to occur. 



CONTENTS. 

INTRODUCTION : 

Origin and uses of Grammar Page 13 

General description of English Grammar 19 

Orthography : 

Letters « 20 

Syllables— Spelling 22 

Final Letters 23 

Augments 24 

Compounds, &c 25 

Exercises on Orthography 26 

Etymology : 

Classification of Words— Noun 29 

Article — Adjective 30 

Pronoun 31 

Verb 32 

Adverb 33 

Interjection 35 

Exercises on the Classification of Words 37 

Additional Exercises , 43 

Exercises to be written by the Pupil 44 

Inflection of Words ; 
Inflection of Nouns — 

Number 48 

Gender 51 

Case , 54 

Inflection of Adjectives 55 

Inflection of Pronouns 57 

Inflection of Verbs 58 

Inflection of Compound Verbs 70 

Inflection of Active and Passive Verbs 71 

Moods 71 

Tenses 73 



X CONTENTS. 

Conjugation of the Verb To Have 74 

Conjugation of the Verb To Be , 77 

Conjugation of the Verb To Love — Active Voice 80 

Conjugation of the Verb To Love — Passive Voice 83 

Conjugation of the Verb To Know — Active Voice 86 

Conjugation of the Verb To Know — Passive Voice 90 

Exercises on the Inflection of Words: 
^ On the Noun — 

I Number 92 

Exercises to be written 93 

Gender » 95 

Exercises to be written 95 

Case 97 

Exercises to be written 97 

On the Adjective 100 

Exercises to be written 100 

On the Pronoun 102 

Exercises to be written 102 

On the Verb 104 

Exercises to be written 106 

Derivation 112 

Syntax : 

Rules of Syntax 115 

Rules of Construction 115 

Subject and Verb 115 

Object 116 

Nouns and Pronouns 117 

Article 119 

Verbs 119 

Prepositions 121 

Conjunctions 121 

Interjections 123 

Exercises on Construction 123 

Miscellaneous Exercises on Construction 128 

Exercises to be written 130 

Rules of Arrangement 139 

Subject and Verb 139 

Verb, and its Object. . 140 

Position of Adjectives 140 

Position of Pronouns 1 41 

Position of the Infinitive and the Auxiliaries 141 



CONTENTS. XI 

Position of Adverbs 141 

Position of Prepositions 142 

Position of Conjunctions 142 

Exercises on Arrangement 143 

Exercises to be written 145 

Exercises in Syntactical Parsing- 150 

Punctuation 154 

Exercises on Punctuation 158 

Prosody : 

Versification 160 

Iambic Verse 162 

Trochaic Verse 1 64 

Anapaestic Verse 165 

Poetical License 166 

Exercises on Prosody 167 

Appendix : 

Derivation 169 

Origin of Words 169 

Origin of English Roots 170 

Separable Roots 171 

Inseparable Roots 1 74 

Latin Roots found only in Composition 184 

Greek Roots found only in Composition 184 

Prepositions and Conjunctions ". 187 

Origin of English Derivations 189 

Prefixes 190 

Affixes 192 

Primary Signification of Words . 198 



IxXTRODUCTION. 



THE ORIGIN AND USES OF GRAMMAR. 

If, in conversation, we should hear a person use the follow- 
ing expression, " Him and me are brothers," we should say 
that he was speaking incorrectly, and that he could not have 
received a good education. The person, thus censured, might 
inquire in return, " Why his language was incorrect, since it 
was quite plain and intelligible?" The answer would, of 
course, be. It is incorrect, because it is not according to the 
principles of Grammar. He might then reply, " What is this 
Grammar, which undertakes to direct how I must speak, and 
what words I must use, in order to be considered a person 
of good education ?" We might then reply to him with a 
definition of the subject of this little volume. 

Grammar is a science and an art : as a science, it explains 
the principles and usages of language ; and it is the art of 
speaking and writing correctly. There are many who un- 
derstand it as a science, but do not practise it as an art. It 
is our purpose, in the following pages, to aid the pupil, as far 
as may be in our power, in becoming a proficient in both 
these respects. 

The person of whom we have already spoken, might pur- 
sue his inquiries a little farther, and say, '* Whence does 
Grammar receive its authority ? Did it exist before language? 
Did people learn to speak by it at first ?" 

Give a specimen of incorrect langfuage. Why is it incorrect ? What 
2 (13) 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

We should answer, By no means. Language existed long 
before Gramnnar was invented ; in the same manner as ani- 
mals, plants, and rocks existed before the sciences of zoology, 
botany, and mineralogy were invented. As the animals, 
plants, and rocks are the subjects of these sciences, so words 
and phrases, which have been sanctioned by national and re- 
putable usage, are the subjects of the science of Grammar. It 
derives its authority from the accuracy with which it deter- 
mines what is, and what is not, the usage of good writers and 
speakers. 

This brings us back to the point from which we started ; 
and enables us to show that the expression above cited is incor- 
rect and ungrammatical, because it is contrary to long estab- 
lished usage among educated people, who speak the English 
language. 

The person who used the expression might turn upon us 
again, and inquire, "Why should I learn English Grammar? 
Of what consequence is it to me or to my friends, whether I 
speak according to its rules or not, if I can make myself un- 
derstood ?" 

As this is a question which often arises in the minds of 
young pupils who have not the courage to put it to their teach- 
ers, we will endeavour to answer it fully. 

In the first place, it is not easy, nor is it always possible for 
a speaker or writer to make his language intelligible without 
conforming to the rules of grammar. Where the subject oa 
which a person speaks or writes is difficult or intricate, it is 
absolutely necessary to use grammatical language, in order to 
convey his meaning clearly to the mind of the hearer or 
reader. 

In the next place, the principles of grammar having been 
adopted by general consent, they are the best means which we 
have for interpreting or explaining the meaning of spoken or 

is Grammar ? Did languagfe exist before grammar? With what sciences 
is grammar compared ? What is the first reason assigned for learning 



ORIGIN AND USES OF GRAMMAR. 15 

written language. The importance of conforming to these 
principles may be thus illustrated. If a piece of writing, for 
example a contract, or a man's will, were executed in such a 
manner as to admit of two different interpretations, one un- 
grammatical, giving the advantage, to be derived from the 
contract or will, to John; and the other grammatical, giving 
the advantage to Thomas, the law of the land, which deter- 
mines all such matters, would decide in favour of the gram- 
matical interpretation; and would, consequently, give the 
advantage to Thomas. It is easy to perceive, therefore, that 
the disposal of a fortune might be made to depend upon the 
grammatical interpretation of a sentence. 

This illustration is sufficient to show that it is useful and 
important to understand grammar sufficiently to be able to 
conform strictly to its rules in writing. 

But the utility of grammar is not confined to the correct 
execution of legal instruments. 

It is also an indispensable qualification for those who 
seek distinction in literary pursuits ; and it is necessary to the 
respectable discharge of the commonest offices and trusts In 
business. The clerk, the trader, or the mechanic, as well as 
the author or the professional man, will meet with difficulties 
and mortifications at every step of his career in life, if he is 
unable to write a correct and handsome letter, or draw up a 
neatly composed report or memorial. 

Again, one should learn grammar to enable him to form a 
just critical estimate of the English and American literature, 
and to relish its beauties. If he does not understand grammar, 
he cannot pronounce with confidence whether this or that book 
be correctly written or not; still less is he qualified to decide 
respecting its rhetorical beauties or blemishes ; because gram- 
mar is the introduction to rhetoric, and no proficiency can be 

grammar ? — the second ? Give the illustration. For what is grammar 
an indispensable qualification ? In what other pursuits is it necessary ? 
How does grammar aid our judgment respecting the merits of books f 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

made in the latter study without a previous acquaintance with 
the former. 

It is also important to understand and apply the principles 
of grammar in our common conversation ; not only because it 
enables us to make our language understood by educated per- 
sons, but because it furnishes the readiest evidence of our 
having received a good education ourselves, enables us to 
converse with intelligent people on equal terms, and, to a 
certain extent, furnishes us with a passport to the best society. 

Every science reduces the objects of which it treats into 
certain classes, in which these objects are arranged according 
to the degree of resemblance which they bear to each other. 
To a person ignorant of botany, the innumerable plants and 
trees which form the subject of that science present a com- 
plete chaos; and he is unable to determine their properties, or 
even remember the names of a thousandth part of them ; but, 
by means of regular classification and systematic arrange- 
ment, the science of botany has rendered the study of plants 
an easy and agreeable task ; and one who is acquainted with 
it is delighted with its simplicity and order. 

In like manner, to a person ignorant of grammar, the many 
thousand words in a language, the relations of those words to 
each other, and the laws which determine their correct usage 
in speaking and writing, present a subject of much perplexity 
and doubt; and, in attempting to write his own language, he 
is always uncertain whether he is expressing himself correctly, 
or exposing his want of knowledge by palpable blunders. On 
the other hand, the person who is acquainted with the science 
of grammar, having seen the words reduced to a few compre- 
hensive classes, their relations pointed out with accuracy, and 
the proper method of using them strictly determined by refer- 
ence to the practice of reputable writers, is never at a loss 
what word to use, or how to place it, in order to express him- 

To what is grammar the introduction ? In what other respects is it 
important ? Why is classification necessary in science ? How is it use- 



ORIGIN AND USES OF GRAMMAR. 17 

self correctly. All such questions have been decided by the 
science. 

The application of taste to fine writing — the determining 
what form of expression is elegant or coarse — belongs pro- 
perly to rhetoric, which treats of the higher efforts of compo- 
sition. It is the province of grammar simply to determine 
what is correct according to the usage of reputable writers. 
A sentence may be grammatically correct which is not written 
according to the laws of rhetoric ; but a sentence cannot be 
rhetorically correct which violates the rules of grammar. 
Grammar, therefore, as we have already remarked, is abso- 
lutely necessary as an introduction to the study of rhetoric ; it 
is, consequently, indispensable for any one who would attempt 
the higher beauties of composition. 

fully applied in grammar ? What is it the province of grammar to de- 
termine ? 



2* 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. Grammar is the science which exhibits, in a systematic 
form, the leading principles and usages of language. 

2. Grammar, when applied to practice, is also considered 
as an art ; and, in this point of view, it is defined to be the 
art of speaking and writing correctly. 

3. In languages which have both a vjritien and a spoken 
form, the usages of the former, rather than of the latter, de- 
termine the rules of grammar. 

4. The written is always more perfect than the spoken 
form of a language. Conversation being common to the un- 
learned and ignorant, as well as the educated classes of. 
society, admits of many liberties which are no longer per- 
mitted when the language is reduced to writing. In this 
case, it becomes necessary to conform to the usage of the 
best writers. It is upon the practice of such writers that the 
rules of grammar are founded. 

5. Written language consists of a succession of sentences, 
6» Sentences are composed of words, words are com- 
posed of syllables, and syllables of letters ; so that the gram- 
mar of a written language treats of letters, syllables, words^ 
and sentences, 

7. English Grammar exhibits, in a systematic form., the 
principles and usages of the English language ; and, when 
applied to practice, it is the art of speaking and writing the 
English language correctly. 

8. It is divided into four parts: Orthography, Etymology; 
Syntax, and Prosody. 

9. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, and the spelling 
of words. 

1. What is grammar considered as a science ? — 2. As an art? 3. What 
is said of written language? 4. Upon what are the rules of grammar 
founded? 6. Of what does the grammar of a written language treat? 
7. Define English Grammar. 8. How is it divided? 9. What- is the 

19 



20 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

10. Etymology treats of the classification, inflection, and 
derivation of words. 

1 1. Syntax treats of the proper method of arranging words 
so as to form sentences according to the usage of the most 
approved writers. 

12. Prosody treats of the structure of poetical compo- 
sition. 



PART I. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 

13. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, and the spell- 
ing of words. 

L LETTERS. 

14. A letter is a mark or character representing an ele- 
mentary sound in language. 

15. The English alphabet consists of twenty-six letters. 

16. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

17. A Vowel is a letter which makes by itself a perfect 
sound. 

18. A Consonant is a letter which cannot be sounded 
without a vowel. 

19. A, e, 2, 0, u, (and w and y, when they do not begin a 
word or syllable,) are vowels. 

' 20. The remaining nineteen letters, (with w and y, when 
they begin a word or syllable,) are consonants. 

The distinction of letters into vowels and consonants arises from the 
structure of the human organs of speech. The sounds produced by 
the openings of the organs, and which may be prolonged without 
changing their position, are represented by the vowels ; the sounds 

subject ofOrthography ?— 10. Etymology ?— 11. Syntax ?— 12. Prosody ? 
14. Define a letter. 15. How many in English? 16. How divided? 
17 Befiiie a Vowel— 18. A Consonant. 19. Which are vowels? 20. 



LETTERS. 21 

produced by the joinings or shuttings of the organs are represented 
by the consonants. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi- vowels, according as the 
articulations, or joinings of the organs in the enunciation of them, 
are more or less close. Thus k, p, and «, which wholly intercept 
the voice, as in the syllables ek, ep, et, are called mutes ; h, d, andg-, 
which admit a short prolongation of sound, as in eb, ed, eg, are called 
semi-vowels. 

The consonants have also received different names from the organs 
chiefly employed in uttering them. Thus, p, b, f, v, are named 
labials, or letters of the lip; s, z, dentals, or letters of the teeth; 
d, t, gingivals, or letters of the gums ; g, J, k, palatals, or letters 
of the palate ; m, n, nasals, or letters of the nose ; I, r, Unguals, 
or letters of the tongue. But, as more than one organ is concerned 
in the utterance of almost every consonant, these names are not 
strictly, but only generally, appHcable. 

21. The union of two vowels in one sound is called a Dipfi' 
thong. 

When both vowels are heard, the diphthong is called proper; as oi in 
voice. When only one is heard, it is called an improper diphthong ; 
as ea in eagle. 

22. The union of three vowels in one sound is called a 
Triphthong, 

The diphthongs in English are numerous ; the triphthongs are only 
three, eau, ieu, and iew. U, preceded by q, is never reckoned part 
of a diphthong or triphthong, but treated as if it were part of the q, 

23. In written compositions, the letters have two forms — 
capitals and small letters. 

24. Capitals are used only at the beginning of words in 
particular situations. 

25. Small letters form the body of the composition. 

26. The following are the situations in which words are 
begun with capitals : — 

The first word of every sentence, whether in prose or verse ; the first 
word of every Hne in poetry ; the first word of a quotation in a 
direct form ; the names of the Supreme Being ; all proper names, 
and adjectives derived from proper names ; the names of the days 
of the week and of the months of the year ; any word which the 

Which consonants? 21. Define Diphthong. — 22. Triphthongf. 23. How 
many forms have letters ? 24. When are capitals used ? 25. Small let- 
ters? 26. Describe the situations in which words begin with capitals. 



32. ORTHOGRAPHY. 

writer may think very important, as the Reformation, the Revo- 
lution ; the pronoun I, and the interjection O ; and generally, also, 
the name of an object personified, as, " Where is thy sting, O 
Death!" 

II. SYLLABLES. 

27. A syllable is a single sound, represented by one or 
more letters ; as a, an, and, wand, 

28. In every syllable there must be at least one vowel. 

29. Words of one syllable are called Monosyllables ; words 
of two syllables, Dissyllables ; words of three syllables Tri- 
syllables ; and words of more than three syllables, Poly^ 
syllables. 

The best mode of dividing words into syllables is to follow, as nearly 
as possible, the divisions made by the organs of speech in accurately 
pronouncing them. Thus, hob-it ^ ham-let, cru-el, an-i-mal. 

The only case in which it is allowable to adopt a different mode is 
when the pronunciation is anomalous or . pecuhar. Thus, in such 
words as vicious, condition, Slc, where ci and ti are pronounced 
like shy the division is vi-cious, con-di-tion^ not vici-ous, con-diti-ouo 

III. SPELLING.* 

30. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper 
tetters. ^ 

The spelling of the English language, in common with that of all 
living languages, is regulated chiefly, though not wholly, by the pre- 
vailing mode of pronunciation. 

The chief anomahes in Enghsh orthography proceed from the number 

* To Teachers — The rules and exercises here given are of a strictly 
practical character, and are, of course, designed to accustom the pupil 
to correct spelling. Every teacher will use them in the manner which 
his own judgment may dictate. I would, however, suggest that, at 
first, the pupil should be required to write the exercises, and merely 
refer to the rules in order to write them correctly. In reviewing the 
grammar, it may be expedient for the pupil to commit the rules to 
memory. The importance of spelling correctly will furnish a sufRcient 
inducement to the most indolent learner to incur this small amount of 
labour for the purpose of acquiring so necessary an accomplishment. 

27. What is a syllable ? 28. What must there be in every syllable ? 
29. How are words classified with respect to the number of their syila* 
bles ? 30. What is Spelling ? 



Debt 


Indict 


Dum6 


Victuals 


Subtle 


Scent 


bdellium 


Ascend 



Gnat 


TAyme 


Rei^n 


Asthma 


Impugn 


Heir 


Phlegm 


Rhetoric 



SPELLING — FINAL LETTERS. 23 

of silent consonants, and the impossibility of describing their situ- 
ations by any thing like general rules. 
The following instances of words in which the consonants 6, c, d, g, 
and k, are silent, will exhibit the nature of EngUsh usage on this 
point : — 

Han6?some 

Grounc?sel 

Knowleefge 

Fieldfare 

Almost the only orthographical usages that approach to such uniform- 
ity as tO'warrant the dedticiion of general rules from them, are those 
which respect the final letters of words, and the mode in which 
augments, or additional syllables, are appended to them. 

1. FINAL LETTERS. 

1. E is the principal ^na/ vowel in English words; and 
final e is always silent, except in a few monosyllables, — me, 
7VC, he, she; a few words in ee, as, free, tree, refugee; and a 
few terms of foreign origin, as epitome, synecdoche. 

2. All the consonants are used as final letters, with the 
exception of j, q, v, and c and ^ soft. 

3. The final letter of a word is, in general, either a silent 
6 or a consonant, according as the vowel contained in the 
final syllable of the word has or has not its long sound. 
Thus, made, mad; mete, met ; pine, pin; 7iote, not ; tube, tub. 

From this general principle, however, there are some deviations : — 

(1.) The words have, bade, are, were, give, come, one, done, 
love, with some others, end in silent e, though the preceding 
vowels have not their long sound. 

(2.) Words ending in the consonant h do not admit a 
silent e after them, though the preceding vowel be long, — 
except, sometimes, when preceded by t ; as bathe, swathe, 
tithe, clothe, 

(3.) Words ending in two different consonants do not, in 
general, admit a silent e after them, though the preceding 
vowel be long; as night, bo't, host: such words as horde, 
bronze, change, haste, &c., are exceptions. 

4. Words whose final syllable contains a diphthong do 
not in general admit the silent e after them; dis faith, ^nV/, 



24 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Jieat, toil. The exceptions are such words as believe, per- 
ceive^ renounce, rejoice, &c. 

4. In Monosyllables, the final consonant is generally sin- 
gle, except in words ending in /, I, or s, preceded by a single 
vowel, which generally double the consonant. 

Thus W8 write rw6, hud, frog, oh, ham, tin, nap, fur, jpet, fox, phiz, 
each with a single consonant ; but we double the consonant in staff, 
stiff, scoff, stuff; all, ell, hill, roll, skull; mass, less, hiss, toss, 
truss. 

The words in which this rule does not hold are chiefly the following : 
—^ebh, add, odd, egg, inn, err, purr, butt, buzz ; and if, of; as, gas, 
has, was, yes, is, his, this, wis, us, thus. 

5. In words of more than one syllable, the final consonant 
is generally single, except in words ending in / or s, pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, which double the consonant. 

Thus we write syllabub, cinnamon, sinister, &lc. ; but we double the 
consonant in distaff, mastiff, rebuff, harass, &c. 

6. The use of c hard as a final consonant is peculiar. It is 
used as a final letter only in words of more than one sylla- 
ble, and in these only when preceded by i, or ia ; as, music, 
maniac : in monosyllables, it is always accompanied by k ; 
as lack, deck, trick, lock, luck, except lac, zinc, 

2. AUGMENTS. 

When words are increased by appending to them such additions as s, 
ed, er, est, ing, able, ible, en, ish, ful, ous, ly, y, ment, ness, &lc., 
they undergo changes, in certain cases,, in their final letters ; the 
change varying according as the final letter is a vowel or a con- 
sonant. 

7. Words ending in silent e, upon assuming an augment, 
generally lose the e, if the augment begin with a vowel ; but 
retain the e, if the augment begin with a consonant. 

Thus, silent e is cut off* before able, ible, ing, ish, &cc ; as cure, cura- 
ble ; sense, sensible ; place, placing ; slave, slavish ; but is retained 
before /wZ, less, ly, ment, ness, &c. ; as peaceful, guileless, closely, 
incitement, paleness. 

The principal deviations from this rule are in the cases of the aug- 
ments able and ous. When silent e is preceded by v, or by c or ^ 
soft, the e is retained before able ; as moveable, peaceable, chargeable. 
When silent e is preceded by g soft, it is retained before ous ; as, 



SPELLING — COMPOUNDS. 25 

courageous ; and when preceded by c soft, it is changed into i before 
ous ; as grace, gracious. 

8. Words ending in y, preceded by a vowel, generally 
retain y, upon taking an augment ; as hoy, boys, boyish ; coy, 
coyly. But words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, 
change the y into i before receiving an addition ; as fancy, 
fanciful; ready, readily; except when the addition is ing or 
ish or 's ; in both of which cases the y is retained ; as, car- 
Tying, babyish. 

Words ending in ty, upon assuming the affix ous, change y into e ; as, 
beauty, beauteous. 

9. Words which end in a single consonant preceded by a 
single vowel, on receiving an augment beginning with a 
vowel, either double the final consonant, (or preserve it 
single,) according as the last syllable is or is not accented. , 

If the last syllable be accented, (or if the word be monosyllabic,) 
the consonant is doubled upon assuming an augment; as, begin, 
beginner; glad, gladden. But if the accent fall on any syllable 
except the last, (or if a diphthong precede the final consonant) the 
consonant is not doubled; as offer, offering ; defeat, defeated.^ 

The words apparelled, cancelled, caviller, coralline, counsellor, crys- 
talline, duellist, jeweller, levelling, libeller, revelling^ rivalling, 
traveller, are not spelt in accordance with this rule. 

10. Words ending in a double consonant retain both con- 
sonants upon assuming the augment, whether the augment 
begin with a vowel or a consonant; except words in //, 
which generally drop one / before taking an augment 
beginning with a consonant. Thus, scoffer, oddity; fulness, 
chillness. 

3. COMPOUNDS, &c. 

11. Compound words are generally written in the same 
way as the simple words which compose them. Thus, 
herein, uphill, hereafter, recall, &c. 

* In some instances, the accent of a word is changed in order to admit 
the augment; — in which case, the accentuation of the augmented, not the 
original word, determines the spelling. Thus confer, conference ; refer, 
reference ; prefer, preferable ; metal, metallic ; medal, medallion. Over- 
looking this circumstance, some grammarians have thoug-ht it necessary 
to treat conference, reference, preferable, metallic, medallion, &c., as if 
they were deviations from the ordinary rule. 
3 



26 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

But there are many deviations from this usage, especially among words 
which end in II ; as, albeit, almighty, already, also, altogether, always j 
withal, hulrush, fulfil, careful, handful. 

12. There are many English words which may be used 
with propriety in two different ways. 

Thus, the words connection and connexion ; enquire, inquire ; favour, 
favor ; honour, honor ; inflection, inflexion ; negotiate, negociate ; 
&c., are used indiscriminately, by the best modern writers. 

13. The deviations from analogy in Enghsh orthography 
are so numerous, that they can be fully acquired only by 
a practical acquaintance with the usages of the language. 

The following are some of the most frequent :— 

In adopting French words, it is the general usage of the language to 

change the French termination tre into ter ; accordingly we write 

chamber and charter , instead of the French chambre and chartre ; but 

we still retain metre, nitre, sceptre, sepulchre, spectre, and theatre. 
We write author without u, but retain the u in honour. 
Moveable and immovable are both established usages ; so are tameable 

and blamable. 
We write equalize with only one I, and tranquillize with two, though 

the primitive words equal and tranquil both end alike in one I. 
Defence and offence are estabhshed usages; but their derivatives are 

defe7isive and offensive. 
We write exceed, proceed, and succeed ; but, though the Latin cede be 

the root of all alike, we write accede, recede, secede. 



EXERCISES ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LETTERS. 

Rectify the errors in the use of capital letters, in the following sen- 
tences : — 

The Great phocion, one of the most celebrated personages among the 
Ancient grecians, was condemned to death by his ungrateful Country- 
men ; And, when about to drink the fatal Hemlock, was asked if he 
had any thing to say to his Son. " bring him before me," said He. 
" my Dear Son," said phocion, " i entreat you to serve your country 
with as much Fidehty as I have done, And, above all, to forget 
that an unjust death was the Price with which She recompensed My 
services." 



EXERCISES ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

he dies ! The Friend of Sinners dies ! 

lo! salem's Daughters weep around ; 
A solemn Darkness veils the skies ; 

a sudden trembling shakes the ground, 
say, *' live for ever, Glorious king ! 

born to Redeem, and Strong to save !" 
Then ask the Monster, " where' s thy Sting ? 

And Where's thy Victory, boasting grave V 

SYLLABLES. 
Divide the following words into syllahles : — 
Abjure, ancient, arrogant, ashes, bluster, capricious, cherish, coalition, 
coeval, conviction, debase, dehcious, efficacious, ferocious, fiher, 
filtration, gardener, impregnable, intrepid, judicial, momentary, 
musician, nuncio, onion, optical, perversity, quaternion, reverential, 
society, sohdity, tergiversation, transient, unanimity, union, veri- 
simihtude, worshipped, yellowish, zany. 

SPELLING. 

Correct the false spelling in the following words, by introducing the 
silent coQisoiiants that are omitted. 
Dout, dum, dim, com, crum, lam, lim, num, sutle, 
Asend, desent, musle, sene, sience, septre, zarineu 
Hankerchief, hansel, grounsel. 
Benin, desin, ensin, forein, nash, poinanL 
Agast, onest, rapsody, reumatism, rubarb, Tames, Tomas, 

Escplaisi why each of the following words has a silent e as the fnal letter. 
{See Rules 1,2, 3) :-- 
Alpine, blade, cone, divine, fete, guide, hue, pique. 
Grotesque, festive, passive, precipice, courage. 
Come, done, give, have, mor«, were, lathe, tithe. 

Correct the false spelling in the following sentences, {see Rules 4 and 5) : — 
The trees budd, the bees humm, and the fishes leap in the nett ; let 

us al hasten to fil our pitchers with thiss water before the eb of 

the tid. 
You cannot place too much stres upon learning to spel properly. 
Time is hke a river stil appearing to pas anvay, yet stil coming onn. 
Thiss strangerr hass been able to amas wealth, though he came to 

our country with only his staf in his hand. 
Unroll that m,app, that I may follow the course of the canall untill it 

fal into the sea. Now hold it til I pas my finger along its course. 



28 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Correct the spelling of the following words, {see Rule 6) :— 

Attac, ecclesiastick, logick, musick, napsac, schismatick^ sic, terrifickj, 
trac, zinck, zodiack. 

Affix the augments ing, ed, to the following words, (see Rules 7 & 8) :— 

Amplify, amuse, analyze, annoy, behave, calumniate, charge, defy, 
dedicate, destroy, efface, flay, fortify, humble, menace, rejoice. 

Affix to the following words such of the augments, able, ible, en, ish, ful^ 
ous, ly, y, ment, ness, &c., as their signification will allow them to 
take, {see Rules 7 & 8) : — 

Able, acknowledge, allege, allow, allay, ample, appellative, battle, 
beauty, blaspheme, body, bone, branchy, busy, eognosee, com- 
mence, cure, dandy, deduce, deface, duty, drone, elope, envy, force, 
fury, godly, grace, knave, ignoble, issue, joy, judge, measure, pity^ 
plenty, space, lame, usury, white. 

Affix to the following words ed, er, ing, or such other of the augments as 
they will admit, {see Rules 9 & 10) : — 

Assess', annul', aver', begin', ca'per, cav'il, decrep'it, entrap', jew'el, 
inhab'it, intermit', li'bel, permit', rebeP, refer^, spir'it, transfer', trepan', 
vis'it. 

Correct the false spelling in the following sentences, applying the rules :-^ 

A wis man is never les alon than when alone. 

The finn of a fish is, as it wer, the limb by which he balances hia 

body. 
Modesty in youth is better than comelyness; and diligence than a 

plaiful fancy. 
By defering repentance, we become the destroiers of our own hap- 

pyness. 
Cultivate sedatness of manner ; be servicable to others ; live harmlesly ; 

avoid wilful eviil ; be cilways obligeing : These quality? are all truelj' 

desu-eable. 
A favorr confered with delicacy doubles the obhgation. 

But, O ! how alterred was its sprightlyer tone 
When Cheerfullness, a nymph of healthyest hue, 

Her bow across her shoulders flung, 
Her buskins gemed with mornning dew. 

Blew an inspireing air, thjat dal and thickett rung; 
The hunters* call, to Fawn and Dryad knowa! 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 29 

As the lark with varyed tun 

Carolls to the evening loud, 
Mark the mild resplendent moon 

Breakking through a partted cloud. 
Linnets with unnumberred nots, 

And the cukoo bird with two, 
Tuneing sweet their mellow throates, 

Bidd the setting sun adieu! 



PART II. 
ETYMOLOGY. 

31. Etymology treats of the Classification^ the Inflection^ 
and the Derivation of words, 

L CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

32. The words of the English language are divided into 
€ight classes, called Parts of Speech. 

33. The names of these parts of speech are, Noun^ Article, 
Pronoun^ Verb, Adv-erb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Inter^ 
jeciion, 

N O U N, 

34. A Noun is a word which is simply the name of an 
object^ as, boy, schooL, lesson, obedience. 

35. There are two kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common. 

36. Proper Nouns denote the names of individuals only; 
as, John, Philadelphia, 

37. Common Nouns denote a whole kind or species; as 
man, city. 

38. Proper nouns are used to distinguish individuals from 
the rest of the species. Common nouns are applicable to 
any individual of ihat species. 

31. Of what does Etymology treat? 32. How are the words of the 
English language classified ? S3. Name the parts of speech. 34. What 
is a noun ? 35. How many kinds of nouns are there ? 36. What are 
proper nouns ? What are common nouns ? 38* How are proper nouns 

3* 



so ETYMOLOGY. 

39. Proper nouns are classed as common nouns when 
they are employed to describe more than one individuaL 
Thus, "the Howards," the "Stuarts," being descriptive of 
classes of individuals, may be considered as common nouns. 
It is the same in such expressions as " He is the Cicero of 
the age;" " he is a Hercules." 

40. The names of qualities, conceived as existing apart 
from the substances to which they belong, are called Abstract 
Nouns ; as, hardness, gentleness, 

ARTICLE. 

41. An article is a word which is used to limit the signifi- 
cation of nouns. 

42. The words a or an, and the, are the only articles in the 
English language. 

43. A and an were originally ae and ane, and were 
probably used at first simply to convey the idea of unity; 
as ae man, ane ox. They still express the idea of unity ; but 
less emphatically than when they were written after the 
ancient fashion. 

44. A or an is called the indefinite Article; and the the 
definite Article, 

ADJECTIVE. 

45. An Adjective is a word which qualifies a noun; as 
good, tall, 

46. An adjective expresses the quality of a noun not 
simply, but as conjoined with the noun; and is therefore 
never used without a noun being either expressed or under- 
stood. 

47. Thus, talbiess, goodness, greatness, and the like, which 
express properties or qualities simply, are not adjectives, but 
abstract nouns ; though tall, good, and great, which qualify 
nouns, and cannot be used without them, either expressed 
or implied, are adjectives. 

used ? 39. When are they classed as common nouns ? 40. What is 
an article ? 41. What the only articles in the English languagfe ? 42. 
What were a and an originally ? 43. Distinguish the definite from 
the indefinite article. 45. What is an adjective ? 46. How does it 
express the quality of a noun? 47. Give examples. 48. How are 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 31 

It is probable that all adjectives were originally nouns ; and it some- 
times happens that nouns are used in our language as adjectives ; as 
gold rifigj coal fire, sea water, ship stores. 

Among the words used both as adjectives and nouns are Christianj 
cold, cu?ining, divine, evil, liquid, missionary , original, private, 
ritual. 

48. Adjectives are divided into two classes: Adjectives 
denoting quality, and Adjectives denoting number, 

49. Adjectives denoting quality are such as good, bad^ 
large, great, 

50. Adjectives denoting number are called Numeral Ad- 
jectives, They are divided into two kinds, Cardinals and 
Ordinals. 

51. The Cardinals are those which simplify or denote 
number ; as one, two, three, 

52. The Ordinals are those which denote order, or num- 
ber in succession; asjirst, second, third, 

PRONOUN. 

53. A Pronoun is a word which supplies the place of a 
noun ; as it, which. 

Thus hi the sentence, ''John said to his brother, I request you to 
walk to the city, and bring me the book which I ordered," /, me, 
you, and tvhich, are pronouns or relative words, which refer to the 
words ''John," brother," and "book" respectively, and supply 
their place. 

54. The word to which a pronoun refers is called the Cor- 
relative or Antecedent, 

This correlative is always either a noun, a word, or words equivalent 
in signification to a noun. 

55. Pronouns are divided into Personal, Relative, and 
Adjective, 

56. The Personal Pronouns are /, thou, he, she, and it ; 
and their plurals we, ye or you, and they, 

adjectives divided ? 49. Give examples of adjectives denoting- quality. 
50. What are adjectives denoting number called? 50. How are they 
divided? 51. Give examples of cardinals. — 52. Of ordinals. 53. What is 
a pronoun ? Give me an example. 54. What is meant by the correla- 
tive or antecedent of a pronoun? What must it be? 55. How are 
pronouns divided ? 56. Which are the Personal Pronouns ? Which is 



32 ETYMOLOGY. 

/ is called the pronoun of the first person, which is the person 

speaking. 
Thou, the pronoun of the second person, denotes the person spoken to 

or addressed. 
He and she are pronouns of the third person, denoting the person 

spoken of. 
It, a pronoun of the third person, denotes the thing spoken of. 

hi. The Relative Pronouns are, who, which, that, as. 

They are so called, because their reference to their correlative is 

generally more direct and immediate than that of the other pronouns. 
Thus, in the sentence, '' The scholar who disobeys the master deserves 

punishment," the reference of who to scholar is so obvious and 

immediate that the correlative cannot be mistaken. 
Wlio is apphed to persons ; which, to inanimate things ; that and as, 

indiscriminately to persons and things-; as, has generally the word 

such for its correlative. 
What and whether are Compou?id Relatives, what being equivalent to 

that v/hich, or thou which ; whether denoting which of the two. 
Whoever and whatever are simply the relatives who and what, with the 

aiiix ever added, in order to render their application indefinite. 
Who, which, and what, when used to ask a question, are commonly 

called Interrogative Pronouns. 

58. The Adjective Pronouns are divided into three kinds, 
viz: Demonstrative, Distributive, and Indefinite. 

The Demonstrative Pronouns are this, that, and their plurals, these, 
those. They are used to point out emphatically the objects to which 
they refer. 

The Distributive Pronouns are, each, every, either, and neither. They 
denote the persons or things which make up a number, as taken 
separately or distributively. 

The Indefinite Pronouns are some, ether, another, any, and such. An- 
other is other with the indefinite article an prefixed. 

VERB. 

59. A Verb is a word which affirms or asserts ; as, strikes, 
walks, is. 



the pronoun of the first person? — The second? — The third? 57. 
Which are the relative pronouns ? Why are they so called ? Give 
an example. To what is loho applied ? Which are the compound 
relatives ? What is the effect of ever at the end of who and what ? 
When are loho and ichai called Interrogative Pronouns? 58. How are 
the Adjective pronouns divided ? Which are Demonstrative ? — Distri- 
butive ?— Indefinite ? 59. What is a verb? Give an example. 60. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 33 

Thus, in the sentences ''John walks;'' '' James strikes the table;" 
"The boy is idle ;" walks, strikes, and is are verhs. 

60. As the noun is the word in a sentence which names 
the thing about which we speak, so the verb is the word 
which asserts or declares what we say concerning it. 

61. Verbs are divided into Transitive and Intransitive. 

62. Transitive Verbs denote that kind of action which 
passes from the agent to something else. 

63. Intransitive Verbs denote that kind of action or state 
of being which is limited to the agent or subject. 

Thus heat, love, kill, are transitive verbs, as expressing a kind of 
action by which the agent affects something besides himself. Sit, 
sleep, stand, are intransitive verbs, as denoting simple being, or 
action limited to the subject or agent. 

In dictionaries, the words active and neuter are invariably used to dis- 
tinguish the transitive and intra?isitive verbs. It is customary in 
grammars to use the terms transitive and intransitive, partly because 
they are considered more accurate and expressive ; and partly 
because the word active is used in grammars, in opposition to the 
word passive. The distinction between these two words will be 
considered in that part of this work which treats of the inflections 
of verbs. In the mean time, the pupil will suffer no inconvenience 
by using the word active 'as synonymous with transitive, and ncufrr 
as synonymous with intransitive. The uniform practice in dic- 
tionaries and in general literature has authorised such a use of the 
words. 

ADVERB. 

64. An Adverb is a word which qualifies a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb ; as, "He reads well; she is 
very gentle ; I will go most willingly. '''' 

65. Adverbs seem to perform the same office to verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs, that adjectives perform to 
nouns. 

Thus, in the sentence " Cicero was eloquent,'" the term eloqueM, 
being a word used to modify the noun Cicero, is an adjective ; but in 
the sentence " Cicero was exceedingly eloquent,'' X\ieXeTm exceedingly y 
being a word used to modify the adjective eloquent, is an adverb. In 

Explain the office of the verb. 61. How are verbs divided ? 62. What are 
Transitive Verbs ? 63. What are Intransitive Verbs ? Give examples. 
How are the terms active and neuter used in dictionaries ? 64. What 
is an Adverb ? ^5. How is it used ? Give examples. 66. What does 



34 ETYMOLOGY. 

like manner, in the sentence *' Csesar fought bravely,''^ ^^hravely,^^ 
as modifying the verb ''f ought, ^^ is an adverb. 

66. The adverb serves merely to express in one word 
what may always be expressed by two or more words. 
Thus, had we not possessed such words as here, there thither, 
eloquently, we could have expressed the ideas conveyed by 
them, by using the equivalent phrases, in this place, in that 
place, to that place, in an eloquent manner, 

PREPOSITION. 

67. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation 
which one thing bears to another ; as, " Death entered into 
the world by sin." 

Prepositions are so called from their being generally put before other 
Vv^ords. 

68. The Prepositions in most common use are, — About, 
above, across, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, 
amongst, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, besides, 
between, betwixt, beyond, but, by, down, except, for, from, in, 
into, near, nigh, of, off, on, out, over, round, save, through, 
throug/iout, to, towards, under, underneath, up, upon, with, 
within, without, 

69. A number of prepositions which are of great use in 
modifying the words to which they are prefixed, are called 
inseparable prepositions, from their never being used but as 
parts of other words. Such are, a, be, con, mis, pre, re, sub ; 
as in afoot, befall, con]om, mt>hap, j^refix, regain, ^wfetract, &c. 

CONJUNCTION. 

70. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words and 
sentences. 

71. The Conjunctions in most general use are, and, also, 
either, or ; neither, nor; though, yet, but, however ; for, that ; 
because, since; therefore, wherefore, then; if, unless, lest. 

an adverb express ? 67. What is a Preposition ? Why so called ? 69. 
Which are the prepositions in most common use ? 70. What is a con- 
junction? 71. Which are the conjunctions in most common use? 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 35 

INTERJECTION. 

72. An Interjection is a word used to express sudden 
emotion. 

They are so called, because they are generally thrown m between the 
parts of a sentence without any reference to the structure of the other 
parts of it. 

73. The following are the chief Interjections: — Ah, alas; 
pshaw, jie; ha, ha, ha; lo, hush, huzza, O, oh, heigho. 

Some verbs, nouns and adjectives, uttered by way of exclamation, in 
a detached manner, are classed among interjections : as, hail ! wel- 
come ! strange ! 

74. The learner will perceive, by the above classification 
of the words of our language, that the Noun is the principal 
part of speech ; that it is the only one which expresses a 
distinct idea without the help of any other word ; and that 
all the other parts of speech are employed to denote the 
actions, qualities, and relations of the Noun. The whole 
subject might be familiarly treated thus. Nouns are the 
nam.es of persons or things; adjectives express the qualities 
of those persons or things; verbs express their actions; 
adverbs, the modifications of those qualities or actions; 
prepositions express the relations of nouns, and conjunctions, 
their connections. Pronouns supply the places of nouns, to 
avoid the inconvenience of repeating them too frequently ; 
Articles limit their signification; and finally, Interjections 
express the sudden emotions of persons, of whom the names 
are nouns. Thus, all the other parts of speech have a direct 
relation to the noun ; and derive all their importance from 
this relation. By keeping this important fact constantly in 
view, the pupil will find the task of understanding grammar 
greatly simplified. Even in performing the following exer- 
cises on the classification of words, he will frequently be 
enabled to determine, without hesitation, what part of speech 

72. What is an Interjection ? Why so called ? 73. Which are the 
chief interjections ? Give examples of other parts of speech occasion- 
ally used as interjections. 74. Which is the principal part of speech? 
Describe the offices of the other parts of speech with relation to the noun. 
How may you distinguish the parts of speech ? What gives law to 



36 ETYMOLOGY. 

any word is, by inquiring how it stands related to the 
noun. 

Some words, from the different ways in which they are used, belong 

sometimes to one part of speech, sometimes to another.* 
The same word must originally have been, both in import and use, 

only one part of speech. Present usage, however, gives laws to 

grammar, not original import. 
The chief words, which belong sometimes to one part of speech, 

sometimes to another, are, as, hut, either, neither, much, more, most, 

that. 

As is used both as a relative pronoun and as an adverb. Thus, ** Only 
such punishment is inflicted as serves the end of government." ** As 
great as Caesar.'^ 

But is used both as a preposition and conjunction. Thus, *' Nothing 
but religion can give true peace." "John lives in London; hut 
James resides in Edinburgh." 

Either and neither are used both as adjectives af number and as con- 
junctions. Thus, " Of these two books I will take either.*^ '* Either 
speak truth or keep silence." 

Much, more, and most, are used both as adjectives and adverbs. Thus, 
" In most towns much money has been collected, but more ought to 
have been collected for so good a purpose." " 3Iost certainly ; but 
I am much gratified with what I have got, the more so as I did not 
expect it." 

* The following simple directions have been given for enabling the 
pupil to distinguish the principal parts of speech ; though it is better 
when he is able to distinguish them by a knowledge of their discrimi- 
nating properties without the help of rules : — 

A word thai can properly be added to the phrase, lam thinking of, or 
I am thinking of the, is a Noun. 

A word that will take the noun thing or things afler it, is an Adjec^ 
live of quality. 

A word that will take before it, the pronouns J, thou, he, or we, is a 
Verb. 

Words that answer to the questions how? how much ? when ? or where? 
joined to a verb or an adjective, are Adverbs. 

Prepositions may be distinguished from conjunctions by their admit- 
ting alter them the words me, us, him, them, &c. 



part of speech, sometimes to another? What is said of asl — butl — 
either, and neither ? — much, more, and most 7 — that ? How do you dis- 
tinguish a Noun ? — An adjective of quality ?— A Verb ? — Adverb ? — 
Preposition ? 



EXERCISES. 37 

That is used as a demonstrative pronoun, a relative pronoun, and a 
conjunction. Thus, "I will thank you for that book." "I will 
thank you for the book that is beside you." "I beg that you will 
hand me the book." 



EXERCISES ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

1. The Noun. — Give iiistances of words which belong to the 
class Nouns, 

Distinguish between Common and Proper Nouns in the following sen- 
tences : — 

London is the chief city of Britain. 

The first king of Israel was Saul, the son of Kish. 

The children of Israel left Egypt under the guidance of Moses : they 
received the law at Mount Sinai, and sojourned forty years in the 
wilderness of Arabia. Joshua was their conductor across the river 
Jordan into Canaan, the promised land. 

The first twelve emperors of Rome are distinguished by the name of 
Cffisars. The first of them was Julius Ceesar, a man equally illus- 
trious as a general, a historian, and an orator. He w^as alike the 
Alexander, the Dem.osthenes, and the Xenophon of his age. 

2. The Adjectives. — Distinguish between Nouns and Adjec^ 

lives in the following sentences : — 
Diligent scholars learn rapidly. 
Obedient children are dear to their parents. 
Verdant fields appear at a distance. 
Flowers beautiful and fragrant were ofiered to her. 
King Alfred was good and great. 
The river is deep, dark, and rapid. 

Distinguish between Abstract Nouns and Adjectives in the following 
S94itences :• — 
Happy are merciful men, for they shall obtain mercy. 
The meekness of Moses, the patience of Job, and the wisdom of Solo- 
mon, have been celebrated in every age. We should be meek, and 
wise, and patient, like them. 
In warm w^eather, we complain of warmth ; in cold weather, we com- 
plain of coldness. 
The external elegance of that mansion is surpassed by the elegant 
nature of its internal arrangements. 
4 



38 ETYMOLOGY. 

There have been many excellent and generous men ; but how rare is 
such generosity and excellence as Howard displayed ! 

Distinguish when the following words, Christian, cunning, evil, good, 
missionary, divine, original, are Nouns, and ivhen Adjectives, in the 
following instances : — 

The Christian rehgion is little understood by many a man who calls 

himself a Christian. 
The enemy was cunning ; but his cunning was nothing to that of our 

commander. 
How can ye that are evil do good ? but, alas ! good men often do evil. 
He went out as a missionary to the heathen ; but he had little of the 

missionary spirit : — a great divine, he had little of the divine spirit 

either of the original missionaries, or of the great Original of our 

holy faith. 

3. The Numeral Adjective. — Distinguish Nouns, Adjectives 
denoting quality, and Adjectives of number, in the following 
sentences : — 

A good boy loves his book. 

An open countenance inspires confidence. 

The Forth, the Tay, the Tweed, and the Clyde, are the four principal 
rivers of Scotland. 

Many a flower is born to blush unseen. That new palace is not so 
picturesque as this old castle. 

Some of the greatest personages of antiquity were men of one virtue 
and a thousand crimes. 

The parrot is a foreign bird, of beautiful plumage. It can be taught to 
pronounce a great many words and even sentences. But all its 
agreeable quahties are counterbalanced by that inchnation which it 
has to gnaw and destroy every thing you put within its reach. This 
bird is found in flocks in the v;oods of several warm countries. It 
makes a nest in any hollow tree which it can find, and it lays but 
few eggs, commonly only two or three. 

4. The Pronoun. — What do the Pronouns he, she^ his, her, it, 
and they, refer to respectively in the following sentences ? 

The huntsman wished his dogs to take the water. At first they 
refused : but at last they crossed it, he following on horseback. 

The street was originally named after a lady of rank ; but, as sJie did 
not choose that it should bear her name, the name was changed into 
that of a famous general : he, however, was never consulted in the 
matter. 



EXERCISES. 39 

Point out the Antecedents or Correlatives of who, which, that, and as, in 
the .following sentences. 

The bark which is stripped from the oak is used in tanning leather. 
Some oaks are said to be older than the oldest man that ever lived. 
The fruit which grov^^s upon this tree is called an acorn. There are 
men in some countries who eat acorns. In this country, the only 
animals that now feed on them are pigs and poultry ; though such 
men as originally peopled Britain were glad to use them. 

Supply the blanks in the following passages with Relative Pronouns, 
distinguishing when who, and when which, ought to he used. 

The fuel is most commonly used in the British Islands is coal. 

It is dug out of deep pits in the earth by men are called miners. 

Long ago, the foul air collects under ground used sometimes 

to be set on fire by the lamps of the miners, and to blow up, to the 
great hazard of the Hves of all were in the mine ; but this has 

seldom occurred since the celebrated Sir Humphry Davy 
devoted much attention to the subject, found out a kind of gauze 
keeps in the flame, and prevents it from igniting the foul air. 

Supply the blanks in the foUoioing story with appropriate Pronouns .*— 

Three friends entered into partnership ; Charles gave the shop as 
contribution to general stock ; David agreed to manage the busi- 
ness ; thus giving time and talents as contribution ; Edward 
advanced the money to buy goods for filling . • After carrying on 
the business for some time in a manner that reflected credit on the 
manager, and brought gain to all, suddenly lost both shop and 
goods by a fire that broke out in neighbourhood ; and it came to 
be a question among the partners which of had incurred the 
greatest loss. " We have all lost equally," argued David, " for 
each contributed equally to general stock, and all is gone." 
'* Not at all," replied Charles ; ** I have lost shop, certainly, and 
Edward has lost money ; but , David, have lost only your 
time: talents for management, formed the other part of 
your contribution, still remain unimpaired ; nay, are improved 
by the exercise they have received in conducting business. You 
are, therefore, not to be considered as a loser to the same extent as 
Edward and have been, but rather as one is a debtor to the 
firm." It is for the ingenious reader to determine which of the 
parties had the advantage in this argument. 



40 ETYMOLOGY. 

5. The Verb. — Distinguish Nouns, Adjectives denoting quality, 
Adjectives of number, Pronouns, and Verbs, in the follow- 

ing sentences : — 

John is a tall boy : he has three sisters. 

Our master strikes the table three times. 

That horse gallops at the rate of twelve miles an hour. 

The sun sets. 

Our hearts are deceitful. 

The dihgent scholar surpasses his competitors, and stands leader in 

his class. 
An idle boy grieves his teacher, disappoints his parents, and ruins 

himself. 
I love my parents, my preceptor, and my lesson : you are idle ; you 

neglect your duty ; you deserve punishment. 

Distinguish Verbs from Adjectives in the following sentences ;— 

The meadows are joyful : the little hills rejoice. 
The shadows of the long night lengthen about us. 
We mourn at the mournful tidings. 
The whole family are sad : their sadness saddens us. 

Distinguish between Transitive and Intransitive Verbs in the following 

i7istances : — 
Afflict, arise, begin, beg, bite, bleed, cleave, creep, drink, eat, fall, 
fly, go, grov/, hang, hear, know, lie, ride, ring, rive, run, scatter, 
seek, sell, shave, shine, sink, smite, stride, strew, swim, take, tear, 
think, throw, walk, wax, weave, weep, win, word, write. 

In the following sentences, distinguish when the word in italics is a Noun, 
when an Adjective, arid when a Verb. 

Thy friends are in the garden : they walk from walk to walk. 

So great is the heat given out by the burning pines, that they heat 

the whole surrounding air. 
The fight still continues : they breathed a little, but now they fight 

again. 
So rich and fragrant, the poets tell us, is the smell of the spicy fields 

of Arabia Fehx, that the mariners who navigate the coast smell 

them far out at sea. 
This damp night might be expected to cast a damp over us ; yet we 

damp not our ardour. A calm has succeeded the storm, aad again 

the ocean is calm. It is proper that we calm our fears also. 
If you labour diilgentiy you will not lose your labour. 
They hope to gain v/ealth, and the hope of gain sweetens labour. 



EXERCISES. 41 

They are of humble ranh, but they rarik high in the estimation of 

their fellows. This flower is rank. 
He should moderate his wishes, and be content with moderate gains. 

6. Adverbs. — In each of the following sentences there is an 
Adverb : point it out ; and state, in each case, which part 
of speech it qualifies, whether an Adjective, Verb, or other 
Adverb, 

The master twice corrected John. 

Your lesson is not sufficiently prepared. 

The boy who lately entered school is now at the head of his class. 

You act foohshly ; your conduct is truly mournful. 

That story is not true. 

That is not very wisely said ; you certainly deserve punishment. 

This is too bad; such misconduct wdll very speedily find you out. 

7. — Sentences in which all parts of speech occur, to he parsed 
ivith reference to the classification of the words, 

God bestowed on man the faculty of speech for great and important 
purposes : but, alas ! we frequently pervert it to the worst purposes, 

Alexander the Great had a high esteem for knowledge and learning. 
He used to say, ''He was more obliged to Aristotle, his tutor, for 
his learning, than to Philip, his father, for his life !" O what a pity 
he devoted his life so little to the learning he so greatly loved ! ^ 

The tongue of the slanderer is a fire which blackens w^hatever it 
touches — which directs its fury on the good grain equally as on the 
chaff, — w^hich, w^herever it rages, produces nothing but devastation 
and ruin. how vile a character is the slanderer! The tongue is 
an inestimable blessing ; but he perverts and prostitutes it. 

Words descriptive of natural sounds generally bear some resemblance 
in their sound to what they represent. We call a certain bird the 
cuckoo, from the sound which it emits. We say of the wind, at one 
time, that it whistles, at another, it roars. We say of serpents, they 
hiss ; of flies, they buzz ; of falling timber, it crashes. Of the stream 
we say, it flovv's ; of the hail, it rattles. In all w'hich instances there 
is obviously a manifest resemblance between the word and the thing 
signified. 

At noontide hour 
The imprison' d inmates of the school rush forth. 
And sport the happy interval away. 
Upon the sward they gaily spread their stores, 
And, happy! feed upon the simple fare. 
4* " 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 

In midst of them poor Redbreast hops unharm'dj 
For they have read, or heard, and wept to hear 
The story of the Children in the Wood, 
And many a crumb to Robin now they throw. 

O Caledonia! stern and wild, 

Meet nurse for a poetic child! 

Land of brown heath and shaggy wood, 

Land of the mountain and the flood, 

Land of my sires ! what mortal hand 

Can e'er untie the filial band 

That knits me to thy rugged strand ! 

8. Instances of the same word used as different parts of 

speech. 

My book is as good, as large, and as carefully kept, as any in the 

school. It is such as the master is sure to approve. 
Many men are obliged to be content with such accommodations as 

they can get, not such as they wish. 
He hath not grieved me hut in part. He has injured nothing belonging 

to me hut the basket ; hut he has destroyed the whole of your 

fishing-tackle. 
I will take either road at your pleasure. Either you or I must do it. 
Do you say that 7ieither is attentive ? neither the boy nor the girl? 
I cannot go beyond the word of the Lord, to do less or more. 
As the sun sinks, the stars appear more and more ; but more stars are 

invisible than all that yet appear. 
He will love most who has most forgiven. 
Read that book again. 
Read the book that I gave you. 
Read that book, that you may become wise. 
I tell you that that man is innocent. 
Blessed is the man that considereth the poor. 
Eat that you may live, and live that you may do good. 
Forgive us our trespass, as we forgive them that trespass against us. 
That you should have reason to mourn, is grievous to me. 
That star that shines above us, for as little as it seems to be, is larger 

than either the moon or the earth : it is hut a sparkling diamond in 

apparent magnitude ; hut in real magnitude, and probably, also, in 

use, it is a world. 



EXERCISES. 43 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 



The inconvenience which I have suffered in giving instruction in rhetoric and composi- 
tion to such of my pupils as have never been much accustomed to write grammatical 
exercises, has induced me, in preparing this work, to furnish a large number of exercises 
to be written. To render these exercises as easy and agreeable as possible, I resort to the 
use of pictures. The aid which these pleasing objects give the pupil, by suggesting 
ideas to his mind, has been rendered so apparent to me, by the use of the little volume 
entitled " Easy Exercises in Composition," that I am fully convinced of the propriety of 
using them, not only in the scholar's first attempts at composing themes, but in the more 
simple process of writing grammatical exercises. This is the only apology which I deem 
it necessary to offer to my brethren and friends, the instructors of youth, for so extraordi- 
nary a proceeding as the introduction of pictures into a practical treatise of English 
Grammar. 



75. As the exercises to be written by the pupil should be 
not merely detached words or phrases, but complete sen- 
tences, it is necessary here to explain what is meant by a 
sentence. 

76. A sentence is a collection of words so arranged as to 
form a complete proposition. In order to form a complete 
proposition, it is necessary, in the first place, to have a sub- 
ject, or, in other words, something to speak or W7^ite about; 
and, in the next place, to speak or write something about 
that subject. The subject, therefore, is that concerning which 
something is spoken or written. That which is spoken or 
written concerning the subject is called the predicate. 

Thus, the phrase " A good hoy,^^ does not constitute a complete sen- 
tence, because it contains no predicate; but the expression, ''A 
good boy loves his book," constitutes a complete sentence, because 
it contains both a subject and a predicate. 

77. The subject, being a thing, must, necessarily, be ex- 
pressed by a noun, or a word or words equivalent in signi- 
fication to a noun. Thus, in the sentence above, the words 
" A good boy," form the subject. 

78. The predicate must always be a verb, or a clause con- 
taining a verb, and equal in amount to a verb. Thus, in 
the sentence above, " loves his book," is the predicate. 

76. What is a sentence ? What is necessary to form a complete propo- 
sition ? What is meant by the term Subject ? — By Predicate ? Give 
examples of an imperfect and a perfect sentence. 77. Wha,t must the 
Subject be ? — 78. The Predicate ? 79. How may a sentence be rendered 
imperfect ? 



44 



ETYMOLOGY. 



79. A sentence is imperfect when it contains a word 
which implies that an additional clause is required to com- 
plete the sense. 

By examining the following sentences and parts of sentences with 
reference to their explanation, and pointing out which among them 
are complete, and which are not, the pupil will readily learn to dis- 
tinguish between them, and to apply the distinction in writing gram- 
matical exercises. 

A great hero. A great hero is not always a good man. The boy who 
studies. The boy who studies diligently. The boy who studies 
diligently may hope to become a good scholar. A house built of 
stone. The house is built of stone. When Washington arrived. 
When Washington arrived, the enemy retreated. The days being 
short. The days being short, afforded Httle time for amusement. 



EXERC13ES TO BE WRITTEN BY THE PUPIL. 

[In writing the following exercises, tiie pupil is not required to confine himself to tb© 
parts of speech enumerated under each, but he may use others also.} 




Evening Sport. 



Write a uumber of short sentences, the ideas being suggested by the 
above picture, the words employed including nouns, articles, and 
%)erbs. 

MODEL. 

The hoy plays. The father observes. The mothel* smiles. The 
sister enjoys the sport. A pipe hes on the table. The sister leans 
on the table. 



EXERCISES. 



45 




Chasing a Butterfly. 
Write sentences relating to the objects in this picture, introducing 
nouns f articles, adjectives, and verbs. 




The hand-organ Player. 
Write sentences relating to this picture, including nouns, articles, 
adjectives, verhs, and pronouns. 




Autumn. 
Write sentences relating to this picture, including nouns, verhs, adjec- 
tives, and prepositions. 



46 



ETYMOLOGY. 



:| 




The Cottage Girl. 
Write sentences including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and conjunctiom. 




Chinchillas. 

Write sentences including nouns, verbs, adjectives, articles, and « 



jections. 



inter- 



\ <"¥^-^^ 




i 



Playing with the Parrot and the Dog. 
Write sentences including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adjective pr. 



EXERCISES. 



47 




A Ride. 
Write sentences including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and relative pro- 
nouns* 




The ViUage Inn. 
Write sentences including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adjective pro' 
nouns. 




The Casket. 
Write sentences including all the different parts of speech, some being 
introduced in one sentence and some in another. 



48 * ETYMOLOGY. 



II. I?.[FLECTION OF WORDS. 

80. Injiection is that change of termination which words 
undergo to express their various relations. 

Thus s in boys, er in harder, se in whose, ed in kille(i, are inflections 

of boy, hard, who, and kill. 
Inflections, though now so incorporated with words as not to be used 

apart from them, appear to have been, originally, separate words, 

significant of the circumstances intended. 

81. The parts of speech which admit of inflection, are, 
the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, and the 
Adverb, 

INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 

82. Nouns admit of inflection to express Number, Gender, 
and Case. 

I.- NUMBER. 

83. Common Nouns, only, admit of Number. 

84. There are two Numbers, the Singular and the Plural. 

85. The Singular expresses only one of a class; the 
Plural, any number more than one. 

86. The singular is always expressed by the noun in its 
simple form ; as, hook, fox. 

87. The plural is generally formed by adding s, or es, to 
the singular ; as, book, book^ ; fox, foxes. 

The nouns which take es are chiefly those which end in x, ch soft ; sh, 
ss, and in i and o, preceded by a consonant ;* as, fox, foxes; church, 
churches; brush, brushes; class, classes; alkali, alkalies; hero, he- 
roes. pure, that is, o preceded by a vowel, and ch hard, take s 
only ; as, folio, folios; patriarch, patriarchs. 



* Modern usage is rather in favour of nouns in o, though preceded by 
a co7isonant, following the general rule. Thus, the plurals of canto, 
grotto, junto, portico, quarto, solo, tyro, are now generally written can- 
tos, &c. 

SO. What is inflection ? Give an example. 81. What parts of speech 
admit of inflection ? 82. How are nouns inflected ? 83. What nouns 
have number? 84. How many? 85. How distinguished ? 86. How is 
the singular expressed ? 87. How is the plural generally formed ? What 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 49 

1. The termination /, or/e, is often changed into ves; as, cal/, calves; 
kni/e, knives. 

The following words, however, follow the general rule, viz., brief, 
chief, fief, grief, handkerchief; hoof, proof, reproof, roof; dwarf, 
scarf, wharf; gulf; turf; cliff, sheriff, skiff, whiff; cuff, muff, puff, 
ruff, snuff, stuff; fife, strife ; safe. 

2. Y, preceded by a consonant, is changed into ies; as, city, cities; 
but y preceded by a vowel, follows the general rule, as also y in 
proper names, used as common nouns, though preceded by a conso- 
nant; thus, joy, joys ; Henry, the Henrys. Money, monies; chim- 
ney, chimntes, are exceptions, sanctioned by good authority. 

3. Some nouns take the Saxon termination, en, in the formation of the 
plural ; as. 

Alderman Aldermen. Ox Oxen. 

Child Children. Statesman Statesme^i. 

Footman Footmen. Woman Women. 

Man Men. Workman Workmen. 

4. Some vary the plural to express a difference of meaning. 

Thus, brother makes brothers, w^hen denoting sons of the same parent ; 
and brethren, when denoting persons of the same society or pro- 
fession ; die, a stamp for coining, makes dies; die, a little cube used 
in games, dice; genius makes geniuses, when signifying persons of 
genius ; genii, when denoting aerial spirits ; index makes indexes, 
when it expresses a table of contents, and indices when it denotes 
the exponent of an algebraic quantity ; penny makes pennies, when 
it is used for real coins ; pence, for their value in computation.* 

5. Nouns which have been adopted, without alteration, from foreign 
languages, generally retain their original plurals. The principal 
words of this class are the following : 

FKOM THE GREEK. 

Antithesis antitheses. Ellipsis ellipses. 

Automaton automata. Hypothesis hypotheses. 

Basis bases. Metamorphosis . . . metamorphoses. 

Criterion criteria. Phenomenon phenomena. 

Crisis crises. Thesis theses. 

* To this Hst-it is common to add fish, which is said to m^ke fish in 
the plural, when quantity is to be denoted ; fishes, when we speak of 
number ; and pea, which is said to make peas, to signify the seeds, as 
distinct objects ; pease, the seeds in mass. But it is probably better to con- 
sider fish, when it signifies quantity, and pease, as collective nouns singular. 

nouns take es in the plural ? (1) What change is made in nouns ending 
in/, or/e ? What are the exceptions ? (2) What remarks are made on 
nouns ending in y? (3) Give examples of the Saxon termination in en. 
(4) For what is the plural sometimes varied ? Give examples. (5) What 
is the rule for nouns of foreign origin ? Give examples from the Greek— 
5 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

FROM THE LATIN. 

Animalculum .... animalcula. Genus genera. 

Apex apices. Ignis-fatuus ignes-fatui. 

Appendix appendices. Lamina laminae. 

Arcanum arcana. Magus magi. 

Axis axes. Medium medii. 

Calx calces. Memorandum memoranda. 

Datum data. Radius radii. 

Desideratum .... desiderata. Stimulus stimuli. 

Effluvium effluvia. Stratum strata. 

Erratum errata. Vertex vertices. 

Focus foci. Vortex vortices. 

FROM THE HEBREW. 

Cherub Cherubim.* Seraph Seraphim. 

FROM THE FRENCH. 

Beau beaux. Monsieur messieurs. 

FROM THE ITALIAN. 

Bandit 7 banditti Dilettante dilettanti. 

Banditto 5 * Virtuoso virtuosi. 

6. Some npuns are entirely anomalous in the formation of their plu- 
rals ; thus,— ' 

Foot feet. Cow kine.t 

Goose geese. Sow swine. 

Louse lice. Tooth teeth. 

Mouse mice. 

7. Some nouns are used alike in both numbers ; as, deer, horse, sheep^ 
swine. 

Proper names have necessarily no plural ; but there are also some 
common names which want the plural. Of this kind are names of 
grains ; as, rye, wheat; names of metals ; as, iron, gold; names of 

* " Cheruhim and Seraphim are real Hebrew plurals ; but such is the 
propensity in men to form regular inflections in language, that these 
words are used in the singular, with regular plurals, cherubims, seraph- 
ims. In like manner, the Hebrew singulars, cheruh and seraphy have 
obtained regular plurals." — Webster. 

t If kine was originally cowen, and svnne, sowen, which their sound 
would seem to render not improbable, they belong to exception 3d, rather 
than to exception 6th. 

Give examples from the Latin — the Hebrew — the French — the Italian, 
(6) Give examples of anomalies. — (7) Of nouns used in both numbers. 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 



61 



fossils ; as, marl, clay; and names of abstract and moral qualities ; 
as, gravity, benevolence.^ 

There are some common nouns, on the other hand, which have no 
singular ; for example, nouns expressive of v^^hat nature or art has 
made double ; as, scissors, snuffers; and nouns descriptive of objects 
which are not easily conceived without a reference to a plurality of 
parts ; as, annals, archives, vespers. 

There are also some nouns having a plural termination, which, from 
their being expressive of either unity or plurality, admit of being 
used in either number, according to the view of their meaning pre- 
sent to the mind of the writer or speaker, when he employs them. 
The following are those most commonly used : — 



Alms, 


Hydrostatics, 


Metaphysics, 


Pneumatics, 


Amends, 


Hysterics, 


News, 


Politics, 


Billiards, 


Mathematics, 


Odds, 


Riches, 


Economics, 


Means, 


Optics, 


Statistics, 


Ethics, 


Measles, 


Pains, 


Tactics. 


Hydraulics, 


Mechanics, 


Physics, 





II. GENDER. 

88. There are three Genders, the Masculine, the Feminine^ 
and the Neuter, 

89. The masculine distinguishes male animals ; the femi- 
nine, females ; the neuter , things destitute of sex. 

As there are only two sexes, there ought to be but two genders, — 
the masculine and the feminine. But it has been found convenient 
to add a third, the neuter, t This word signifies neither, and there- 

* It is to be observed, however, that nouns of the above classes take 
a plural to express varieties of the substances denoted by them. Thus, 
we can say, wheats, golds, clays, gravities, when we wish to describe 
different kinds of wheat, &c. 

t All things inanimate are considered as neuter, except in cases 
where, by an easy analogy, the imagination conceives of them as ani- 
mated, and assigns sex to them. This mode of giving life and sex to 
things inanimate, is nearly peculiar to our language, and forms one of 
its striking beauties. But it is not easy to reduce the usage of the lan- 
guage, on this point, to fixed rules. Indeed, fancy, more than nature or 
reason, may be traced in the regulation of the matter; and the same 
object may be found described as sometimes of one gender, and some- 
times of another. The nearest approach to uniformity of usage is in 
the words, sun, death, time, and names of great rivers, which take the 
masculine ; and in the words, moon, morn, ship, earth, which take the 
feminine gender. 

What remark is raadeon proper nouns ? — On some common nouns? — On 
nouns used in either number ? Give examples. 88. How many genders 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 

fore intimates that the objects to which it is applied are neither of 
the mascuHne nor of the feminine gender. 
The Enghsh is almost the only language which, in the distribution of 
Gender, follows the order of nature. 

90. Some nouns, which are applicable to either sex, are 
said to be of the common gender;* SiS, parent, cousin. 

91. There are three modes of distinguishing sex. 

92. (1.) Distinction of sex is most commonly expressed by 
a change of termination to denote the feminine gender. 

93. The feminine terminations most frequently used, are, 
ess, IX, a, ina, and ine. 

Originally, the termination ess was simply added to the masculine j 
but, latterly, the feminine, thus formed, has, for convenience of ut- 
terance, been variously contracted. 

The following words still retain the whole masculine : — 
Masc. Fern. Mass. Fern. 

Author authoress^ Mayor mayoress. 

Baron baroness. Patron - patroness. 

Count countess. Peer peeress. 

Dauphin dauphiness. Poet poetess. 

D eacon ^ . deaconess. Priest priestesSv 

Giant giantess. Prior prioress. 

Heir heiress. Prophet . ^ . . . . prophetess. 

Host hostess. Shepherd. shepherdess. 

Jew Jewess. Tutor tutoress. 

Lion honess. Viscount viscountess. 

The following have undergone contraction t — 
Mase. Fern. Masc. Fern. 

Abbott » abbess.t Adulterer .... ... adultress. 

Actor actress. Ambassador ..... ambassadress. 

* The appellation " commorC'' gender is sufficiently descriptive of 
such a word as parents (in the plural), which necessarily includes both 
the masculine and the feminine. But for the singular, parent, and for 
such words as cousin, &c., " either^* gender would be a more correct 
appellation. 

t These feminines must have been, originally, abbotess, actoress, 
adulteress, &-c. Duchess, and marchioness, have not been formed front 
duke, and marquis, but from duch and marchion. 

are there ? 89. How are the genders distinguished ? What is said of 
the English language? 90. What is meant by the common gender? 
91. How many modes of distinguishing sex are there? 92. Which is 
the first and most common ? 93. Which are the most usual feminine 
terminations ? Give examples of those words which retain the whol® 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 



53 



MtLSC. Fern. 

Arbiter arbitress. 

Benefactor benefactress. 

Chanter chantress. 

Conductor conductress. 

Duke duchess. 

Elector electress. 

Emperor empress. 

Governor governess. 

Hunter huntress. 



3Iasc. Feiru 

Lad lass. 

Marquis . ^ marchioness. 

Master mistress. 

Protector protectress. 

Seamster,, seamstress. 

Songster songstress. 

Sorcerer sorceress. 

Tiger •. tigress. 

Traitor, traitress. 



The words which express the feminine by the termination ix, are of 
Latin origin, thus : — 

Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern, 

Administrator, administratrix. Executor executrix. 

Director directrix. TestatOx — testatrix. 



Those which express the feminine by the terminations a, ina^ and ine, 
are also of foreign origin, and are few in number, tkus : — 

Masc. Fern. 3fasc. Fern, 

Czar. .. ., ..^. .. czarina. Margrave margravine. 

Hero heroine. Sultan sultana. 

Landgrave landgravine, 

94. (2.) Distinction of sex is also expressed by a different 
word being employed to denote the feminine, thus ; — 



Masc. Fern. 

Beau belle. 

Boy .,,, ,, . . . girl. 

Bridegroom bride. 

Brother sister. 

Buck doe. 

Bull cow. 

Bullock heifer. 

Colt filly. 

Drake ,,, duck. 

Earl . . countess. 

Father mother. 



Masc Fern. 

Gaffer gammer. 

Oander , goose. 

Hart , . . . roe. 

Horse mare. 

Husband . ., . , wife. 

King queen. 

Lord lady. 

Man woman. 

Monk nun. 

Nepbew niece. 

Ram ewe. 



masculine. Of those Vv'hich have undergone contraction. Of those 
which express the feminine by the termination ix. Of those which 
express th« feminine by the termination in a, ina^ and ine. 94. (2.) 
What is the second mode of distinguishing sex ? Give examples. 
5* 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

Masc. Fern. Masc, Fem» 

Sloven slut. Uncle aunt. 

Son daughter. Widower. widow. 

Stag hind. Wizard witch. 



95. (3.) Distinction of sex is also sometimes expressed by 
prefixing a separate word to indicate the gender, thus : — 

Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. 

Ile-goat she-goat. Cock-sparrow.. . hen-sparrow. 

Man-servamt . maid- servant. Male-child. » female-child. 



III. CASE. 

96. There are three Cases, — the Nominative, the Posses- 
sive, and the Objective. 

As the only relation of nouns which is expressed in English by a change 
of termination is that of ownership, or possession, there are, strictly 
speaking, only two cases, the noun in its simple form, and the noun 
with the possessive termination ; as, hoy, hoy^s. 

97. The noun is in the nominative case when it is the 
name of the person or thing which acts, or is spoken of. 

98. The noun is in the possessive case when it expresses 
ownership, or possession. 

99. The noun is in the objective case when it is the name 
of the person or thing which is the object or end of an ac- 
tion or movement. 

Thus, in the sentence — "James strikes John's horse," James, as the 
agent, is in the nominative case ; John's, as expressing the relation 
of ownership, is in the possessive; and horse, being the name of the 
object,* is in the objective. 

100. Hhe nominative BXi6. objective are both expressed by 
the noun in its simple form. 

* When a noun does any thing, it is called the agent, and when 
something is done to it, it is called the object. 

95. (3). What is the third mode of distinguishing sex ? Give exam- 
ples. 96. How many cases are there ? 97. What is meant by the 
nominative case ? 98. What is meant by the possessive case ? 99. What 
is meant by the objective case ? Give an example of each, in the same 
sentence. 100. How are the nominative and objective expressed? 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 55 

101. The possessive is formed, in the singular, by adding 
Sy with an apostrophe before it ('s) ;* as, Father, Father's, 

102. The possessive is formed, in the plural, by adding 
only an apostrophe ; as, Fathers, Fathers\ 

When the noun ends in s, ss, ce, or any other termination which does 
not easily admit of a hissing sound after it, the possessive is formed 
by simply annexing the apostrophe without the letters; as, "for 
righteousness' sake, for conscience' sake." 

When the plural does not end in s, the possessive plural is formed in 
the same manner as the possessive singular ; as, men, men's. 

103. A noun is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural. Singular, Plural. 

Norn. Father Fathers Norn. Man Men 

Poss. Father's . . . Fathers' Poss. Man's Men's 

Obj. Father Fathers Ohj. Man Men 

INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

104. The adjectives which admit of inflection, are such as 
denote qualities susceptible of increase, and a few Numerals. 

105. Adjectives which denote qualities susceptible of in- 
crease, admit of inflection to express comparison, 

106. There are three degrees of comparison, — the Posi- 
tive, the Comparative, and the Superlative, 

107. The positive is expressed by the adjective in its sim- 
ple state ; as, hard. 

* It has been supposed that the termination ('s) of the English pos- 
sessive, is a contraction for the possessive pronoun his. Thus, *' John's 
book" has been said to be an abbreviation of " John his book." But 
this opinion is evidently erroneous. The termination ('s) cannot al- 
ways be resolved into the pronoun his. We cannot resolve " queen's 
crown" into " queen his crown," or " children's bread" into " children 
his bread." The fact seems to be, that the English possessive termina- 
tion is one of the parts of our language which we have preserved from 
the Saxon. The casal termination of the Saxon possessive is es, or is ; 
as appears in such phrases as " Godes sight," " kingis crown." The 
progress of change in the termination seems to have been es, is, 's. 

101. How is the possessive formed in the singular? 102. How in 
the plural ? — How when the noun ends in s, ss, or ce? — When the 
plural does not end in s ? 103. How is a noun declined? 104. What 
adjectives admit of inflection ? 105. What adjectives are compared? 
106. What are the degrees of comparison? 107, 108, 109. How are 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 

108. The comparative denotes a greater degree of the 
quality expressed by the positive ; as, harder. 

109. The superlative denotes the greatest degree of the 
quality, expressed by the positive ; as, hardest. 

110. The comparative is generally formed by adding r, or 
er, to the positive ;^ as, safe, safer; tall, talkr. 

111. The superlative is generally formed by adding st, or 
est^ to the positive ; as, safe, safest ; tall, tdllest. 

1 12. The following adjectives are compared irregularly : — 

Good better best. 

Bad ^ 

Evil \ worse worst. 

Ill 3 

Little less . . , least. 

Much! ^^^^ ^^''• 

Far farther farthest. 

Pore former foremost or first. 

In inner inmost or innermost. 

Late later latest or last. 

Near nearer nearest or next. 

Old older or elder oldest or eldest. 

Out outer utmost or outermost. 

Up upper upmost or uppermost. 

113. Adjectives are also compared by prefixing the words 
more and most to the positive ; as, gentle, more gentle, most 
gentle. 

It would seem, from the diversity of usage which prevails, that it is 
left to the ear and taste to determine whether the comparison should 
be expressed in any particular instance by a change of termination, 
or by prefixing more and most. 

Adjectives of one syllable, and- dissyllable adjectives in y and le pure, 
are generally compared in the former way ; adjectives of more than 
two syllables, and dissyllables which do not end in y or le pure, in the 
latter. 

A few adjectives form their superlative by adding most to the compa- 
rative; as, nether, nethermost; lower, lowermost; and a few by 

they distinguished ? 110,111. How are the comparative and superla- 
tive formed ? 112. What adjectives are irregular? 113. What is the 
other mode of comparison? What general rule is given respecting the 
two modes of comparison ? When is most used as a termination ? 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 57 

adding most either to the positive or to the comparative ; as, hind, 
hindmost, or hindermos^ 
There is also a species of comparison made by adding the affix ishj 
which lessens the signification of the positive ; as, black, blackish; 
white, whitisA.* In this form the adjective is called a diminutive. 



INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS. 

114. The Pronouns which admit of inflection, are, the 
Personal, the Relative, the Reciprocal, and the Demonstra^ 
five. 

115. The Personal Pronouns admit of Number, Gender^ 
and Case, 

116. They are thus declined : — 

First Person Masc. or Fern. Second Person Masc. or Fern, 

Sing, Plur, Sing. Plur. 

Nom. I We t Nom. Thou Ye or you t 

Poss. My or mine Our or ours Poss. Thy or thine You or yours 

Ohj. Me Us Ohj. Thee...... You 

Third Pers. Masc. Third Pers. Fern. 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Flu?'. 

Nom. He They Nom. She They 

Poss. His Their or theirs Poss. Her or hers Their or theirs 

Obj. Him Them. Ohj. Her ...... . T^iem 

* The words, prior^ exterior, inferior, superior, ulterior^ &c., which 
have the form of Latin comparatives, are not to be considered compara» 
live in English. Besides wanting the termination of the English com- 
parative, they are not followed by than, its distinguishing mark. 

t The idea expressed by the plurals of / and thou, is not the same 
with that expressed by the plural of nouns. In nouns, the plural is 
equivalent to the singular repeated. Thus, hoys is equal to hoy-]'boy-^ 
hoy, &c., indefinitely. But we is not equivalent to /-f- 14- Ii ^^-i but 
to /-f- others, joined with myself. In the same manner, ye, or you, is not 
equivalent to thou ^ thou -{-thou, &c., but to thou -\- others, joined with 
you. 

What is indicated by the termination ishl 114. Which pronouns ad- 
mit of inflection? 115. Of what do the personal pronouns admit? 
116. Decline I— Thou — He — She — It. 117, Decline Who — Which. 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

Third Person Neuter, ^ 

Norn. It They 

Poss. Its Their or theirs 

Ohj. It Them* 

117. The Relatives, who and which, are thus declined: — 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Nam. Who Who Nam. Which Which 

Poss. Whose Whose Poss. Whoset Whose 

Obj. Whom Whom Obj. Which Which 

118. The Relatives that, and as, admit of no variation. 

119. The Reciprocal Pronoun, self, has, in the plural, selves. 

120. The Demonstrative Pronouns, this, and that, have, 
for their plurals, these and those. 

The Indefinite Pronoun, another, is the only adjective-pronoun which 
admits of variation to express case — another^ s being the possessive 
case. 

INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

121. Verbs admit of inflection to express Number, Person, 
and Time. , 

122. Verbs have two Numbers, the Singular, and the 
Plural ; as, he loves, they love, 

123. Verbs have three Persons, corresponding with those 
of the personal pronouns ; as, / love, thou \ovest, he loves. 

124. The only distinction of Time, or Tense, made by in- 
jlection,\ is into Present and Past ; as, / love, I loved. 

* The oblique cases of the personal pronouns are so different, in some 
instances, from the nominative, that they must have originally belonged 
to different words. 

t Whatever grammarians may say, it does not admit of doubt, that 
whose, as the possessive ofiohich, is the general usage of the language, 

t The pupil will recollect that inflection is that change of termina* 
tion which words undergo to express their various relations. The va- 
riations in the signification of verbs, produced by the use of the auxiliary, 
or generic verbs, are not, strictly speaking, inflections. They will be 
brought into view under the head of Inflection of Compound Verbs. 

118. What is said of that and asl 119. What is said ofs.elf? 120. 
What is said of the Demonstratives? — Of another? " 121. What do 
verbs express by inflection ? 122. How many numbers have verbs ? 
123, How many persons ? 124. What distinctions of time are ex- 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 59 

The present tense denotes that the action, or state, expressed by the 
verb, is in present time. The past tense denotes that the action, or 
state, expressed by the verb, is in past time. 

125. Verbs also admit of inflection to form the Present 
and Perfect Participles. 

126. The Present Participle is formed by adding ing to 
the verb, and denotes that the action is proceeding; as, 
loving, walking, 

127. The Perfect Participle is formed by adding d, or ed, 
and denotes that the action is finished ; as, loved, walked. 

In strictness, the participles are not parts of the verb, as they do not 
imply affirmation, but are merely adjectives, formed from verbs. 

128. Verbs are divided into Regular, Irregular, and De- 
fective. 

129. Verbs are regular when the Past tense, and Perfect 
participle are formed by adding d, or ed, to the present ; as. 

Present. Past. Perfect Part. 

Love Loved Loved. 

Walk Walked Walked. 

130. Verbs are Irregular when the Past tense, and Per- 
fect participle, are formed in any other way than by adding 
dyOX ed,to the present; as. 

Present. Past. Perfect Part. 

Write Wrote Written. 

Do Did Done. 

131. Verbs are Defective when they want one or more of 
these three parts ; as. 

Present. Past. Perfect Part. 

May Might 

Must Must 

pressed by inflection ? What does the Present tense denote ? — The 
Past? 125. Wha.t participles are formed by inflection ? 126. How is 
the present participle formed ? 127. How is the Perfect formed ? 
128. How are verbs divided? 129. When are verbs regular? 130. 
When are verbs Irregular ? 131. When are verbs Defective ? 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 

132. Regular Verbs are thus inflected : — 

TO LOVE, 

Present, Past Perfect Part. 
Love .^ Loved Loved. 

Present Tense, 
Singular. Flural. 

1st Per. I love 1st Per. We loved, 

2d Per. Thou lovest 2d Per. Ye or you loved, 

3dFer. He, she, or it loves,? 3^ p^^ They love. 

or loveth 3 

Past Tense, 
Sing. . Plur. 

1. I loved 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst 2. Ye or you loved, 

3. He, she, or it loved 3. They loved. 

Participles, 
Present. Loving Perfect. Loved. 

133. Irregular Verbs are thus inflected : — 

TO WRITE. 

Present. Past, Perfect Part. 
Write Wrote Written. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I write 1. We write, 

2. Thou writest 2. Ye or you write, 

3. He, she, or it writes, or writeth 3. They write. 

Past Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I wrote 1. We wrote, 

2. Thou wrotest 2. Ye or you wrote, 

3. He, she, or it wrote 3. They wrote. 

Participles. 
Present. Writing Perfect. Written. 

132. How are Regular verbs inflected ? 133. How ^ve Irregular verbs 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 61 

134. There are, at least, one hundred and seventy irregu- 
lar verbs in the English language ; but there is some uni- 
formity even in their irregularities. 

Some of the irregularities are mere abbreviations ; as, crept, for 
creeped; left, for leaved; had, for haved. 

135. Some reject ed, in the past tense and perfect parti- 
ciple, from the difficulty of making this termination coalesce 
with the verb in its simple form ; as, 

Present Past, Perfect Part. 

Cost cost cost. 

Put put put. 

Spread spread spread. 

136. Many have g-ht in the past tense and perfect parti- 
ciple; as, 

Present. Past, Perfect Part, 

Bring brought brought. 

Buy bought bought. 

Catch caught caught. 

137. Many retain the old participial termination, en, or n, 
instead of adopting the modern ed ; as, 

Present, Past. Perfect Part, 

Freeze froze frozen. 

Show showed shown. 

Smite smote smitten. 

138. Several verbs in ing retain the Saxon, ung, in the 
past tense and perfect participle ; as, 

Present, Past, Perfect Part, 

Cling clung clung. 

Fhng flung flung. 

Ring rang or rung rung. 

139. The following is a list of Irregular Verbs* :-— 

* The most convenient mode of reciting these verbs is for the teacher 
to give the Present Tense, or simple form of each verb, and the pupil to 
give the three parts, in answer. 

inflected? 134. How many irregular verbs are there in the English 
language ? 135. Give examples of those which reject ed in the past 
tense, from the difficulty of making this termination coalesce with the 
verb in its simple form. 136. Give examples of those having ght in the 
past tense, and perfect participle. 137. Give examples of those retain- 
ing the old participial termination in en. 138. Give examples of those 
which retain the Saxon uagy in the past tense and perfect participle. 
6 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

Present Past, Perfect Part, 

Abide abode abode 

Am was , been , 

Arise arose arisen 

Awake awoke, or awaked .... awaked 

Bake baked baked, or baken 

Bear, to bring forth bore, or bare born 

Bear, to carry bore, or bare borne 

Beat beat beat, or beaten 

Become became become 

Begin began begun 

Behold beheld beheld, or beholden 

Bend bent, or bended bent, or bended 

Bereave bereft, or bereaved . . . bereft, or bereaved 

Beseech besought besought 

Bid bade, or bid bidden 

Bind bound bound 

Bite bit bitten, or bit 

Bleed bled bled 

Blow blew blown 

Break broke, or break broken 

Breed bred bred 

Bring brought brought 

Build built, or builded built, or builded 

Burst burst burst 

Buy bought bought 

Cast cast cast 

Catch caught, or catched .... caught, or catched 

Chide chid chidden 

Choose chose chosen 

Cleave, to adhere . clave, or cleaved cleaved 

Cleave, to split . . . clove, clave, cleft cloven, or cleft 

Cling clung clung 

Climb climbed, or clomb climbed 

Clothe clothed, or clad clothed, or clad 

Come came come 

Cost cost cost 

Crow crowed, or crew crowed 

Creep crept cr.ept 

Cut cut cut 

TydiYQ, to venture., durst, or dared dared 

Deal dealt, or dealed dealt, or dealed 

Dig dug, or digged dug, or digged 

Do did done 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 63 

Present, Past. Perfect Part. 

Draw drew drawn 

Drink drank drunk, or drunken 

Drive , . . drove driven 

D well dwelt or dwelled dwelt, or dwelled 

Eat ate eaten 

Fall fell 'fallen 

Feed fed fed 

Feel felt felt 

Fight fought fought 

Find found found 

Flee fled fled 

Fhng flung flung 

Fly flew flown 

Forbear forbore, or forbare forborne 

Forget ,. forgot forgotten, or forgot 

Forsake forsook forsaken 

Freeze froze frozen 

Get got, or gat gotten, or got 

Gild gilt, or gilded gilt, or gilded 

Gird girt, or girded girt, or girded 

Give gave given 

Go went gone 

Grave graved graven, or graved 

Grind ground ground 

Grow grew grown 

Hang hung, or hanged hung, or hanged 

Have had had 

Hear heard heard 

Heave heaved, or hove heaved, or hoven 

Help helped helped, or holpen 

Hew hewed hewTi, or hewed 

Hide hid hidden, or hid 

Hit hit i hit 

Hold held held, or holden 

Hurt hurt hurt 

Keep kept kept 

Kneel knelt knelt ^ 

Knit knit, or knitted knit, or knitted 

Know knew known 

Lade laded laden 

Lay laid laid 

Lead led led 

Leave left left 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

Present, Past, Perfect Part. 

Lend lent lent 

Let let let 

Lie, to lie down . . lay lain, or lien 

Lift lifted, or lift lifted, or lift 

Light lighted, or lit lighted, or lit 

Load loaded loaden, or loaded 

- Lose lost lost 

Mak,e made made 

Mean meant, or meaned .... meant, or meaned 

Meet met met 

Mow mowed mown, or mowed 

Pay paid paid 

Put put put 

Quit quit, or quitted quit 

Read read read 

Rend rent rent 

Rid rid rid 

Ride rode, or rid ridden, or rid 

Ring rung, or rang rung 

Rise rose risen 

Rive rived riven 

Rot rotted rotted, or rotten 

Run ran run 

Saw sawed sawn, or sawed 

Say said said 

See saw seen 

Seek sought sought 

Seethe seethed, or sod sodden 

Sell sold sold 

Send sent sent 

Set set set 

Shake shook shaken 

Shape shaped shaped, or shapen 

Shave shaved shaved, or shaven 

Shear sheared, or shore shorn 

Shed shed shed 

Shine shone, or shined shone, or shined 

Shew shewed shewn 

Show showed shown 

Shoe - shod shod 

Shoot shot , shot 

Shrink shrunk , or shrank shrunk 

Shred shred shred 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 65 

Present, Past. Perfect Part. 

Shut shut shut 

Sing sung,orsang sung 

Sink sunk, or sank sunk, or sunken 

Sit. ..»*... » sat sitten, or sat 

Slay*. slew slain 

Sleep slept slept 

Slide slid slidden 

Sling slung, or slang slung 

Slit slit, or slitted slit, or slitted 

Smite smote smitten, or smit 

Sow sowed sown, or sowed 

Speak spake, or spoke spoken 

Speed sped » sped 

Spend spent spent 

Spill spilt, or spilled spilt, or spilled 

Spin spun, or span. spun 

Spit ... spit, or spat spit, or spitten 

Split split, or splitted split, or splitted 

Spread spread spread 

Spring sprung, or sprang sprung 

Stand stood stood 

Steal stole stolen 

Stick stuck stuck 

Sting stung stung 

Stink stunk, or stank stunk 

Stride strode, or strid stridden 

Strike struck struck, or stricken 

String strung strung 

Strive, strove striven 

Strew, or-^ strewed, or-^ Cstrewed 

Strow 5 -•••• strowed 5 •' ^^'''^''' ""' Istrowed 

Swear swore, or sware .... .. sworn 

Sweat sweat sweat 

Sweep swept swept 

Swell swelled swelled, or swollen 

Swim swam, or swum swum 

Swing swing, or swang swung 

Take took taken i 

Teach taught taught i 

Tear tore, or tare torn 

Tell told told 

Think thought thought 

Thrive throve, or thrived thriven 

6* 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

Present, Past Perfect Part. 

Throw threw.., thrown 

Thrust thrust thrust 

Tread trod, or trode trodden 

Wax waxed waxed, or waxen 

Wear wore worn 

Weave wove woven 

Weep wept wept 

Win won won 

Wind wound, or winded wound 

Work wrought, or worked . . wrought, or worked 

Wring wrung, or wringed .... wrung, or wringed 

Write wrote, or writ written, or writ 

Writhe writhed writhen, or writhed 

140. The Defective Verbs are the following; and they are 
generally irregular, as well as defective : — 

Present. Past. Perfect Part, 

Can could 

Forego forgone 

May.. might 

Must must 

Ought ought . . . . » 

Shall should 

Will.. would 

Wis wist 

Wit, or Wot wot 

141. The Irregular Verbs, be, do, have, and the Defective 
Verbs, shall, will, may, can, are perhaps of greater use than 
any other verbs in the language. 

They are called Generic Verbs from the extreme generalij;y of the 
ideas they express, and to distinguish them from such verbs as love, 
write, which, being expressive of more limited ideas, are called 
Specific Verbs, 

To be, denotes hei^ig or existence in general ; as, ** He zs," " He w old," 
*' It is written." 

To do, denotes action in general ; as, '* I do wrong," " I do write." 

To have, denotes possession in general; as, '' I have knowledge," ** I 
have written." 

140. Give a list of the Defective Verbs, with all their parts. 141, 
Which are the most useful verbs in the language ? Why are they 
called Generic Verbs ? What does to be denote ? To do? To have ? 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 67 

Shall, denotes duty or oUigation in general, and, by inference, futU' 

rity; as, *' He shall obey me," '* I shall write to-morrow." 
Will, denotes volition or intention, and, by inference, futurity; as, 

*' I will, be thou whole," " He will write to-morrow." 
May, conveys the idea oi liberty or ^permission, and, by inference, con* 
tingency; as, " He may go if he will," '* He war/ have written or 
not." 
f Can, has the sense of is able, and denotes power or ability in general; 
;• as, *' I can write, though you cannot." 

142. The Generic Verbs are thus inflected : — . 

TO BE. 

Present. Past. Perfect Part, 
Am was been 

Present Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I am 1. We are, 

2. Thou art 2. Ye or you are^ 

3. He, she, or it is 3. They are. 

Past Tense. 
Sing. Plur.. 

1. I was 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast 2. Ye or you were^ 

3. He, she, or it was 3. They were. 

Past Tense Conditional. 
(When used to assert contingent or conditional existence.*) 

1. I were 1. We were, 

2. Thou wert 2. Ye or you were, 

3. He, she, or it were ., 3. They were. 

Participles. 
Imperfect. Being Perfect. Been* 

Infinitive."^ Be, or to be. 

* The verb to he is the only one in the English language which has 
a simple conditional form. In the case of all other verbs, the form, when 
it occurs, is purely elliptical. Thus, " If he say so, it is well," is an 
ellipsis for " If he shall say so.'' 

" Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him," is an ellipsis for 
" Though he should slay me." 

t The infinitive is given in the conjugation of the verb to he, because 
it is the only instance in which the infinitive is different in form from 

Shall 7 Will ? May 1 Can ? 142. How is the Generic Verb to he inflected 1 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 



TO DO, 

Present ' Past Perfect Part 
Bo did .done. 

Present Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I do 1. We do, 

2. Thou doest or dost 2. Ye or you do, ? 

3. He, she, or it doeth, doth, or does 3. They do. 

Past Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. Idid 1. Wedid, 

2. Thou didst 2. Ye or you did, 

3. He, she, or it did 3. They did. 

Participles, 
Imperfect. Doing Perfect. Done, 

TO HAVE, 

Present, Past, Perfect Part, 
Have had c had. 

Present Tense, 
Si7ig. Plur. 

1. I have 1. We have, 

2. Thou hast 2. Ye or you have, 

3. He, she, or it hath or has 3. They have. 

Past Tense, 

1. I had 1. We had, 

2. Thou hadst 2. Ye or you had, 

3. He, she, or it had 3. They had. 

Participles, 
Imperfect. Having Perfect. Had. 

the present tense. But it is more than probable that even this verb did 
not originally furnish an exception to the universal usage of the lan- 
guage. The present tense, / 6e, thou beest, &c., is used by old writers ; 
and it is still used (with perhaps the exception of beest,) when doubt or 
contingency is to be expressed. Thus, " If thou be the Son of God, cast 
thyself down." 

How is the Generic Verb to do inflected ? The Generic Verb to have ? 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 69 

Present Tense, 
Sing^ Plur. 

1. I shall 1. We shall. 

2. Thou shalt 2. Ye or you shall, 

3. He, she, or it shall 3. They shall. 

Past Tense, 
Sing. Plur, 

1. I should 1. We should, 

2. Thou shouldst 2. Ye or you should, 

3. He, she, or it should 3. They should. 

WILL. 

Present Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. Iwm 1. We will, 

2. Thou wilt 2. Ye or you will, 

3. He, she, or it will 3. They will. 

Past Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I would 1. We would, 

2. Thou w^ouldst 2. Ye or you would, 

3. He, she, or it would 3. They would. 

* Shall is a derivative from the Saxon sceal, I owe, or, / ought, and 
signifies, " it is my duty.'''' It is used in this sense by our old writers ; 
as, for instance, by Chaucer, when he says, "The faith I shall to God ;" 
that is, "the faith I owe to God ;" nor has it ever yet lost its original 
signification. "Thou shalt not kill," is, "thou oughtest not to kill." 
But as all duties, though present in respect of their obligation, must be 
future in their performance, so, by a natural transition, this word, which 
strictly predicates only present duty, has come to be used as "a note of 
future time." Hence it is described, in the text, as expressive of duty, 
and, by inference, of futurity. Will, in like manner, only expresses 
present intention ; yet, as the performance of present intention is neces- 
sarily future, it is employed to note futurity. " I shall write," in strict- 
ness, intimates no more than it is my present duty to write ; but the 
phrase is universally interpreted as if it meant to intimate that I am to 
write at some time now future. " He will write," in strictness, intimates 
no more than that it is his present intention to write ; but the same 
interpretation is universally put upon it as upon the other phrase. The 
difference between the present application of shall and will is clearly 
stated by Webster : shall is merely future in the first person, and im- 
perative in the other two ; with will, the case is exactly reversed. 

How is the generic verb Shall inflected ? — How is Will inflected ? 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

MAY. 

Present Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I may 1. We may, 

2. Thou mayest 2. Ye, or you may, 

3. He, she, or it may 2. They may. 

Past Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I might 1 . We might, 

2. Thou mightest 2. Ye, or you might, 

3. He, she, or it might 3. They might. 

CAN. 

Present Tense. 
Si?ig. Plur. 

1. I can 1. We can, 

2. Thou canst 2. Ye, or you can, 

3. He, she, or it can 3. They can. 

Past Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I could 1. We could, 

2. Thou couldst 2. Ye, or you could, 

3. He, she, or it could 3. They could. 

II. INFLECTION OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

143. The generic verbs are most commonly used in com- 
bination with other verbs, which are joined with them to 
limit their signification. 

Thus, if I say, I can, I affirm that I have power or ability in general, 
without limiting it to any particular kind, or application of power. 
But if I subjoin the specific verb, write, and say, / can write, I re- 
? strict my affirmation to my power to write. 

144. The generic verbs, when combined with other verbs, 
form what are called Compound Verbs. 

Thus, 1 have loved, I had written, I shall have walked, I might have 
been struck, are compound verbs. 

How is the generic verb May inflected ? — How is Can inflected ? 
143. How are the generic verbs used ? Give an example. 144. What are 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 71 

The generic verbs have obtained the name of Auxiliary Verbs, from 
being used, principally, to form compound verbs. 

Compound verbs are essential, in order to enable us to express those 
additional tenses and modifications which languages of a more arti- 
ficial structure express by inflection. 

In consequence of the facility it aflTords for forming compound tenses, 
our language, though limited in tenses formed by inflection, is rich 
beyond most languages in tenses formed by combination. 

When combined with other verbs, our generic verbs serve the same 
purposes as the inflections of the simple verb in languages which 
have numerous inflections. 

ENGLISH. FRENCH. LATIN. 

I did speak Je parlazs Diceham. 

1 shall speak Je parleraz Dicam. 

1 might speak .... Je parlerais Dicerem. 

Here, did, shall, and might, correspond to, and serve the same purpose 
with, the flexional terminations, ais, erai, and erais, in French, and 
eham, am, and erem, in Latin. 

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES. 

145. Compound Transitive verbs have two Voices, or 
Forms, — the Active and Passive, 

146. The Active Voice is the form which the verb assumes 
when its subject, or nominative, is the agent ; as, " / have 
struck y 

147. The Passive Voice is the form which the verb as- 
sumes when its subject, or nominative, is the object of the 
action ; as, " / have been struck,'^ 

M CD 3 . 

In giving the inflection of compound verbs, it has been deemed necessary, in the present 
work, to conform to the usual arrangement of moods and tenses, by which the simple are 
exhibited in connexion with the compound forms of the verbs. Before proceeding to ex- 
hibit the moods and tenses in their usual order, an explanation of their meaning and inten- 
tion, as generally understood, is here given. 

148. Mood, or mode, is a form of the verb, showing the 
manner in which the action is represented. 

compound verbs? Give an example. What are auxiliary verbs? 
What is the use of compound verbs ? In what is our languag-e rich ? 
What is the use of the generic verbs in combination with other verbs ? 
Give examples of French and Latin inflections compared with the Eng-- 
lish combinations of generic verbs, with the irregular verb Speak. 145. 
How many voices have Transitive verbs? 146. Define the Active 
Voice. 147. Define the Passive Voice, 148. What is meant by mood, 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

149. There are five Moods, the Indicative, Potential, Sub- 
junctive, Imperative, and Infinitive, 

150. The Indicative Mood simply affirms or declares a 
thing : as, I love ; I am loved, 

151. The Potential Mood is the form of the verb which is 
used for asserting the possibility, liberty, power, will, or obli- 
gation to be, to do, or to suffer ; as, I may go or stay ; I can 
write ; I would walk ; We should respect the laws. 

For convenience the forms of this mood are arranged under different 
tenses ; but in strictness they appear to have very little distinct refer- 
ence to time. For example, in the form of the present tense there 
is nothing to indicate that the action is not referred to a future and 
even a remote time ; as, I may have permission to leave college to- 
day, next v^^eek, or next year. 

152. The Subjunctive Mood represents an action under 
a condition, motive, wish, or supposition. It is generally 
preceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and 
attended by another verb ; as, " If ye love me, keep my com- 
mandments." 

153. The Imperative Mood is the form of the verb which is 
used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting; 
as, Obey me ; Remember thy Creator ; Hear, O Israel ; Depart 
in peace. 

Perhaps it is more accurate to limit the definition of the Imperative 
Mood to commanding, as it v/ill be observed that in each of the above 
examples the verb assumes the form- of command. 

The Imperative Mood is a simple form of the verb, having no inflec- 
tion. In the following arrangement of the mood and tenses, it will 
be found with the compound forms, in order that the pupil may 
recite the whole in connection. 

154. The Infinitive Mood expresses action or being in a 
general manner, without any distinction of number or per- 
son ; as, 7^ love ; to write, 

1 The preposition to being generally prefixed to the verb in this mood, is 
I called the sign of the Infinitive. 

or mode? 149. How many moods are there, and what are their 
names? 150. Define the Indicative Mood. 151. The Potential Mood. 
152. The Subjunctive Mood. 153. The Imperative Mood. 154. The 
Infinitive Mood. What is the sign of the Infinitive ? 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 73 

As the essence of the verb consists in affirmation, the infinitive is not 

strictly speaking a part of the verb, any more than the participles ; 

it is more properly a noun, and it was formerly called the noun^ or 

name of the verb. 
The Infinitive Mood is a simple form of the verb, Hke the Imperative ; 

and it is included in the arrangement of the compound forms for the 

same reason. 

TENSE. 

155. The Tenses are modifications of the verb which mark 
the distinctions of time. 

156. There are six tenses, including those expressed by 
inflection alone, and those expressed by the use of auxiliary 
or generic verbs. They are, the Present ^ the Imperfect, the 
Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First Future, and the Second 
Future, 

157. The Present Tense denotes that the action or state 
expressed by the verb, is in present time ; as, I love, 

158. In order to give greater force to the affirmation the 
Present Tense occasionally assumes what is called an Em- 
phatic Form, by the use of the auxiliary verb do ; as, I do 
write, 

159. The Imperfect Tense denotes that the action or state 
expressed by the verb is past ; as, I loved. 

160. The Imperfect Tense has an Emphatic Form, similar 
to that of the Present Tense; as, I did write. 

161. The Perfect Tense represents an action as completed 
at the present time ; as, I have written my letter. 

162. The Pluperfect Teyise denotes that the action or event 
has taken place at or before a certain time past ; as, I had 
left the city before he arrived. 

163. The First Future Tense denotes an action or event 
which is yet to come ; as, I will walk ; He shall depart. 

164. The Second Future Tense denotes that an action or 
event will take place at or before a future time ; as, I shall 
have finished my theme at six o'clock ; He will have arrived 
before the gates will be shut. 

155. What are the Tenses ? 156. How many Tenses are there ? Name 
them. 157. Describe the Present Tense. 158. Its Emphatic Form. 159. 
The Imperfect. 160. Its Emphatic Form. 161. The Perfeet. 162. 
The Pluperfect. 1^3. The First Future. 164. The Second Future. 

7 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

CONJUGATI ON. 

165. The Conjugation of a verb is the enunciation of its 
several modes, tenses, numbers, and persons, in their regu- 
lar order. 

The term Conjugation is sometimes applied to the naming of its 
three principal parts, viz : the present and imperfect tenses, and the 
perfect participle ; as, Present, go ; Imperfect, went ; Perfect Parti- 
ciple, gone. 

166. In the following pages the generic verbs, have and 
be, the regular verb love, and the irregular verb know, are 
conjugated. The verbs love and know being active or transi- 
tive, are conjugated in the passive as well as in the active 
voice.* 

TO HAVE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, 

Sing, Plur. 

1. I have 1. We have, 

2. Thou hast 2. Ye, or you have, 

3. He, she, or it hath, or has. . 3. They have. 

Present Tense — Emphatic Form. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I do have , 1. We do have, 

2. Thou dost have 2. Ye, or you do have, 

3. He does have 3. They do have. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. Ihad 1. Wehad, 

2. Thou hadst 2. Ye, or you had, 

3. He, she, or it had 3. They had. 

* Some neuter verbs are occasionally used in the passive form by 
good writers ; as. We are come ; they are gone. 

165. What is the Conjugation of a verb ? How is the term Conjuga* 
iion sometimes limited? 166. What verbs are conjugated in the fol. 
lowing pages ? Which of them have the passive form ? Are neutej 
verbs ever used in the passive form ? 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 75 

Imperfect Tense — Emphatic Form. 
Sing, Flur, 

1. I did have L We did have, 

2. Thou didst have 2, Ye or you did have, 

3. He did have 3. They did have. 

Perfect Tense. 
Sing-. Flur. 

1. I have had 1. We have had, 

2. Thou hast had 2. Ye or you have had, 

3. He has had 3. They have had. 

Pluperfect Tense, 

Sing^ Phir. 

1. I had had 1. We had had, 

2. Thou hadst had 2. Ye or you had had^ 

3. Hehadhad 3. They had had. 

First Future Tense. 

Sing, Flur. 

1. I shall or will have 1. We shall or will have, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have ... 2. Ye or you shall or will ha^ 

3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have. 

Second Future Tense, 

Sing^ Flur, 

1. I shall have had .... ^ . 1. We shall have had, 

2. Thou wilt have had 2. Ye or you will have had, 

3. He will have had 3. They will have had. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Sing, Flur. 

2. Have or have thou or do 7 2. Have or have ye or do ye 
thou hav« 5 or you have. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense, 

Sing, Flur. 

1. I may or can have 1. We may or can have, 

2. Thou mayst or canst have . 2. Ye or you may or can have, 

3. He may or can have 3. They may or can have. 



76 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Sing. 
I might, could, would or 

should have, 
Thou mightst, couldst, 
wouldst or shouldst have, 
He might, could, would or 
should have. 



Imperfect Tense» 

Plur. 
1 



We might, could, would or 
should have, 

2. Ye or you might, could, 

would or should have, 

3. They might, could, would or 

should have. 



Perfect 



1. I may or can have had, 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 

had, 

3. He may or can have had. 



Plur, 

1. We may or can have had, 

2. Ye or you may or can have 

had, 

3. They may or can have had. 



Pluperfect Tense, 



I. 



Sing. ■ 
I might, could, would or 
should have had, 
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 
wouldst or shouldst have 
had, 
3» He might, could, would or 
should have had. 



Plur. 

1. We might, could, would or 

should have had, 

2. Ye or you might, could, 

would or should have- 
had, 

3. They might, could, would of 

should have had. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 

Present Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I have 1. If we have, 

2. If thou have 2. If ye or you have, 

3. If he have 3. If they have. 

Present Tense — Emphatic Form^ 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I do have • L If we do have, 

2. If thou do have 2. If ye or you do have> 

3. If he do have 3. If they do have. 

Imperfect Tense, 
Sing. Plur, 

1. If I had 1. If we had, 

2. If thou hadst 2. If ye or you hadj. 

3. Ifhehad 3. If they had. 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 77 

Imperfect Tense-— - Emphatic Form. 
Sing. PluT. 

1. Ifl did have -.. I. Ifwe did have, 

"2. If thou didst have . . 2. If ye or you did have, 

3, If he did have - • 3. If they did have. 

Perfect Tense. 
Sing. PHr. 

1. Ifl have had 1. Ifwe have had, 

2. If thou hast had. . . . » 2. If ye or you have had, 

3. If he has had 3. If they have had. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
Sing, Plnr^ 

1. If I had had L If we had had, 

2. If thou hadst had 2. If ye or you had had, 

3.. Ifhehadhad 3. If they had had. 

First Future Tense. 
Sing, Plur. 

1. Ifl shall or will have 1. If we shall or will have, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have . . 2. If ye or you shall or will have, 
-3. If he shall or will have .... 3, If they shall or will have. 

Second Future Tense, 
Sing. Plur, 

1. If I shall have had 1. If we shall have had, 

2. If thou wilt have had 2. If ye or you will have had, 

3. If he will have had 3. If they will have had. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To have Perfect. To have had. 

Participles, 

Present, or Active. Having , . . . Perfect, Had. 

Compound Perfect. Having had. 

TO BE, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, 
Sing, Plur. 

1. I am 1. We are, 

2. Thou art 2. Ye or you are, 

3. He, she or it is . . ,* 3. They are, 

7* 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. Flur. 

1. I was5 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast 2. Ye or you were^ 

3. He was 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur, 

1. I have been 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been 2. Ye or you have been^ 

3. He hath, or has been 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I had been 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been 2. Ye or you had been^ 

3. He had been 3. They had been. 

First Future Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall, or will be 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shall or wilt be 2. Ye or you shall or will bej. 

3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall have been 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been 2. Ye or you will have been, 

3. He will have been 3. They will have been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

Sing. Plur. 

2. Be thou or do thou be .... 2. Be ye or you or do ye be. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I may or can be 1. We may or can be, 

2. Thou mayst or canst be . . . 2. Ye or you may or can be, 

3. He may or can be . - 3. They may, or can be. 



I 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 79 

Imperfect Tense, 
Sing. Flur. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should be, should be, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst be, would, or should be, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should be. or should be. 

Perfect Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I may or can have been, 1. We may or can have been, 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 

been, been, 

3. He may or can have been. 3. They may or can have beem 

Pluperfect Tense, 
Sing. Flur. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been, should have been, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 

been, been, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should iiave been. or should have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. Iflbe 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be 2. If ye or you be, 

3. Ifhebe 3. Iftheybe. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I were 1. If we were, 

2. If thou wert 2. If ye ar you were, 

3. Khewere 3. If they were. 

Perfect Tense, 

Sing. Plur. 

1. If I have been 1. If we have been, 

2. If thou hast been 2. If ye or you have been, 

3. If he hath or has been — 3. If they have been. 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
Sing. Flur, 

1. If I had been 1. If we had been, 

2. If thou hadst been 2. If ye or you had been, 

3. If he had been 3. If they had been. 

First Future Tense. 
Sing, Plur. 

1. If I shall or will be 1. If we shall or will be, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be .... 2. If ye or you shall or will be, 

3. If he shall or will be 3. If they shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I shall have been 1. If we shall have been, 

2. If thou wilt have been 2. If ye or you will have been, 

3. If he will have been 3. If they will have been. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. To be Perfect. To have been. 

Participles. 

Present. Being Perfect. Been. 

Compound Perfect. Having been. 

ACTIVE VOICE. -^ TO LOVE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I love 1. We love, 

2. Thou lovest 2. Ye or you love, 

3. He, she, or it loveth or loves. 3. They love. 

Present Tense. — Emphatic Form. 
Sing, Plur. 

1. I do love 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love 2. Ye or you do love, 

3. He does love 3. They do love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I loved 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst 2. Ye or you loved, 

3. He loved 3. They loved. 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 81 

Imperfect Tense. — Emphatic Form. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. Ididlove 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love 2. Ye or you did love, 

3. He did love 3. They did love. 

Perfect Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I have loved 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved 2. Ye or you have loved, 

3. He has loved 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I had loved 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved 2. Ye or you had loved, 

3. He had loved 3. They had loved. 

First Picture Tense. 

Si7ig. Plur. 

1. I shall or will love 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love .... 2. Ye or you shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love 3. They shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1 . I shall have loved 1 . We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved 2. Ye or you will have loved, 

3. He will have loved 3. They will have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 
2. Love, or love thou, or do"p 2. Love, or love ye or you, or"> 
thou love 5 do ye love 5 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I may or can love 1 . We may or can love, 

2. Thou mayst or canst love . . 2. Ye or you may or can love, 

3. He may or can love ....... 3. They may or can love. 



82 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Imperfect Tense, 



Sing. 

1. I might, could, would, or 

should love, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst love, 

3. He might, could, would, or 

should love. 



Plur, 

1. We might, could, would, or 

should love, 

2. Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should love, 

3. They might, could, would, 

or should love. 



Sing. 

1. I may or can have loved, 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 

loved, 

3. He may or can have loved. 



Perfect Tense, 

Plur. 

1. We may or can have loved, 

2. Ye or you may or can have 
loved, 

3. They may or can have loved. 



Pluperfect Tense, 



Sing, 

1. I might, could, would, or 

should have loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst have 
loved, 

3. He might, could, would, or 

should have loved. 



Plur. 

1. We might, could, would, or 

should have loved, 

2. Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should have 
loved, 

3. They might, could, would, 

or should have loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I love 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love 2. If ye or you love, 

3. If he love 3. If they love. 

Present Tense, — Emphatic Form, 
Sing. Plur. 

1, If I do love 1. If we do love, 

2, If thou do love 2. If ye or you do Jove, 

3, If he do love 3. If they do love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I loved 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou lovedst 2. If ye or you loved, 

3. Ifhe loved 3. If they loved. 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 83 

Imperfect Tense, — Emphatic Form. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I did love 1. If we did love, 

2. If thou didst love 2. If ye or you did love, 

3. Ifhe did love 3. If they did love. 

Perfect Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I have loved 1. If we have loved, 

2. If thou hast loved 2. If ye or you have loved, 

3. If he has loved 3. If they have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I had loved 1. If we had loved, 

2. If thou hadst loved 2. If ye or you had loved, 

3. If he had loved 3. If they had loved. 

First Future Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I shall or will love 1. If we shall or will love, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love ... 2. If ye or you shall or vnW love, 

3. Ifhe shall or will love 3. If they shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I shall have loved 1. If we shall have loved, 

2. If thou wilt have loved .... 2. If ye or you will have loved, 

3. If he will have loved 3. If they will have loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To love Perfect. To have loved. 

Participles, 

Present. Loving Perfect, Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE, ^ TO BE LOVED. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, 

Sing, " Plur. 

1. I am loved 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved 2. Ye or you are loved, 

3. He is loved 3. They are loved. 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperfect Tense, 

Si7ig. Flur. 

1. I was loved 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved 2. Ye or you were loved, 

3. He was loved 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I have been loved 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved 2. Ye or you have been loved, 

3. He has been loved 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
Sing, Plur. 

1. I had been loved 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved 2. Ye or you had been loved, 

3. He had been loved 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall or will be loved 1. We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shall or wilt be loved. 2. Ye or you shall or will be loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved... 3. They shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall have been loved .... 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved. 2. Ye or you will have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved ... 3. They will have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 
2. Be thou loved, or do thou? 2. Be ye, or you loved, or do 
be loved S ye be loved 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense, 
Sing. Plur, 

1. I may or can be loved 1. We may or can be loved, 

2. Thou mayest or canst be 2. Ye or you may or can be 

loved loved, 

3. He may or can be loved. . . 3. They may or can be loved. 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 



85 



Sing, 

1. I might, could, would, or 

should be loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst be 
loved, 

3. He might, could, would, or 

should be loved. 



Imperfect Tense. 
Flur. 

1. We might, could, would, or 
should be loved, 

2. Ye or you might, could, 
would, or should beloved, 



They might, could, would, 
or should be loved. 



Sing, 

1. I may or can have been 

loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 

been loved, 

3. He may or can have been 

loved. 



Perfect Tense, 

Plur, 

1. We may or can have been 
loved, 

2. Ye or you may or can have 
been loved, 

3. They may or can have been 
loved. 



Pluperfect 

Si7tg. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1 

should have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, S 

wouldst, or shouldst have 
been loved, 

3. He might, could, would, or 1 

should have been loved. 



Tense. 

Plur. 
We might, could, would, or 

should have been loved, 
Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should have been 

loved. 
They might, could, would, 

or should have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Sing, Flur. 

1. If I be loved 1 . If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved 2. If ye or you be loved, 

3. If he be loved 3. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense, 
Sing. Tlur. 

1. If I were loved 1, If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved 2. If ye or you were loved, 

3. If he were loved 3. If they were loved. 

8 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

Perfect Tense. 
Sing. Flur. 

1. If I have been loved 1. If we have been loved, 

2. If thou hast been loved 2. If ye or you have been loved, 

3. If he has been loved 3. If they have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
\ Sing. Plur. 

1. If I had been loved 1. If we had been loved, 

2. If thou hadst been loved ... 2. If ye or you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved 3. If they had been loved. 

First Future Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I shall or will be loved, 1. If we shall or will be loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be 2. If ye or you shall or will be 

loved, loved, 

3. If he shall or will be loved. 3, If they shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I shall have been loved, 1. If we shall have been loved, 

2. If thou wilt have been 2. If ye or you will have been 

loved, loved, 

3. If he will have been loved. 3. If they will have been loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be loved Perfect. To have been loved. 

Partici'ples, 

Presejit. Being loved Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having been loved. 

ACTIVE VOICE,— TO KNOW. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, 
Sing, Plur. 

1. I know 1. We know, 

2. Thou knowest 2. Ye or you know, 

3. He knows 3. They know. 

Present Tense, — Emphatic Form. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I do know 1. We do know, 

2. Thou dost know 2. Ye or you do know, 

3. He does know 3. They do know. 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 87 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I knew 1. We knew, 

2. Thou knewest 2. Ye or you knew, 

3. He knew 3. They knew. 

Imperfect Tense — Emphatic Form, 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I did know 1. We did know, 

2. Thou didst know 2. Ye or you did know, 

3. He did know 3. They did know. 

Perfect Tense, 
Sing. . Plur. 

1. I have known 1. We have known, 

2. Thou hast known 2. Ye or you have known, 

3. He has known 3. They have known. 

Pluperfect Tense, 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I had known 1. We had known, 

2. Thou hadst known 2. Ye or you had known, 

3. He had known 3. They had known. 

First Future Tense, 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall or will know 1. We shall or will know, 

2. Thou shall or wilt know ... 2. Ye or you shall or will know? 

3. He shall or will know 3. They shall or will know. 

Second Future Tense, 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall have known 1. We shall have known, 

2. Thou wilt have known 2. Ye or you will have known, 

3. He will have known 3. They will have known. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

2, Know, or know thou, or '} 2. Know, or know ye or you, > 
do thou know 5 or do ye know. 5 



88 ETYMOLOGY. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I may or can know 1. We may or can know, 

2. Thou mayst or canst know. 2. Ye or you may or can know, 

3. He may or can know 3. They may or can know. 

Imperfect Tense, 

Sing. Plur. 

\. I might, could, would, or I. We might, could, would, or 
should know, should know, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, orshouldst know, would, or should know, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should know. should know. 

Perfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I may or can have known, 1. We may or can have known, 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 

known, known, 

3. He may orcan have known. 3. They may or can have known. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

\. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 
should have known, should have known, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 

known, known, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have known. should have known. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I know 1. If we know, 

2. If thou know 2. If ye or you know, 

3. If he know 3. If they know. 

Present Tense — Emphatic Form, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I do know 1. If we do know, 

2. If thou do know 2. If ye or you do know, 

3. If he do know 3. If they do know. 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 89 

Imperfect Tense, 
Sing. Flur. 

1. If I knew 1. If we knew, 

2. If thou knewest 2. If ye or you knew, 

3. If he knew 3. If they knew. 

Imperfect Tense — Emphatic Form, 

Sing. Flur. 

1. If I did know 1. If we did know. 

2. If ihou didst know 2. If ye <7r you did know, 

3. If he did know 3. If they did know. 

Perfect Tense. 

Sing. Flur. 

1. If I have known 1 . If we have known, 

2. If thou hast known 2. If ye or you have known, 

3. If he has known 3. If they have known. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
Sing. Flur. 

1. If I had known 1. If we had known, 

2. If thou hadst known 2. If ye or you had known, 

3. Khe had kno-vvTi 3. If they had known. 

First Future Tense, 
Singy Flur. 

1. If I shall or will know .... 1. If we shall or will know, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt know . 2. If ye or you shall or will know, 

3. If he shall or will know ... 3. If they shall or will know. 

Second Future Tense, 
Sing. Flur. 

1. If I shall have kno^ii 1. If we shall have known, 

2. If thou wilt have known . . . 2. If ye or you will have known, 

3. If he will have known 3-. If they will have known. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To know Perfect. To have known. ^ 

Participles, 

Present. Kno'wing Perfect. Known, 

Compound Perfect. Having known. 
8* 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, 
Sing, Plur. 

1. I am known 1. We are known, 

2. Thou art known 2. Ye or you are known, 

3. He is known 3. They are known. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur, 

1. I was known 1. We were known, 

2. Thou wast or wert known, 2. Ye or you were know^n^ 

3. He was known 3. They were known. 

Perfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I have been known 1. We have been known, 

2. Thou hast been known 2. Ye or you have been known, 

3. He has been known 3. They have been known. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I had been known 1. We had been known, 

2. Thou hadst been known. .. 2. Ye or you had been known, 

3. He had been known 3. They had been known. 

First Future Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall or will be known ... 1. We shall or will be known, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be known, 2. Ye or you shall or will be known, 

3. He shall or will be known. 3. They shall or will be known. 

Second Future Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall have been known, 1. We shall have been known, 

2. Thou wilt have been 2. Ye or you will have been 

known, known, 

3. He will have been known. 3. They will have been known. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

I. Be thou known ....«,,,,.. 2. Be ye or you known. 



INFLECTION OF WORDS, 



91 



Sing. 

1. I may or can be known, 

2. Thou mayst or canst be 

known, 

3. He may or can be known. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plur. 



1. We may or can be known, 

2. Ye or you may or can be 

known, 

3. They may or can be kn6wn. 



Imperfect Tense, 



1. 



2, 



Sing. 
I might, could, would, or 

should be known. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 
wouldst, or shouldst be 
known, 
3. He might, could, would, or 
should be known. 



Flur. 

1. We might, could, would, or 

should be known, 

2. Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should be 
known, 

3. They might, could, would, 

or should be known. 



Perfect Tense. 



Sing. 

1. I may or can have been 

known, 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 

been known. 

3. He may or can have been 

known. 



Plur. 

1. We may or can have been 

known, 

2. Ye or you may or can have 

been known, 

3. They may or can have been 

known. 



Pluperfect 
Sing. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. 

should have been known, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. 

wouldst, or shouldst have 
been known, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. 

should have been known. 



Tense. 

Plur. 
We might, could, would, or 

should have been known, 
Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should have been 

known. 
They might, could, would, 

or should have been known. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present T^nse. 
Sing. Plur, 

1. If I am known 1. If we are known, 

2. If thou art known 2. If ye or you are known, 

3. If he is known 3. If they are known. 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperfect Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I was known 1. If we were known, 

2. If thou wert known 2. If ye or you were known, 

3. If he was known 3. If they were known. 

Perfect Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I have been known 1. If we have been known, 

2. If thou hast been known, . . 2. If ye or you have been known^ 

3. If he has been known 3. If they have been known. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I had been known 1. If we had been known, 

2. If thou hadst been known . 2. If ye or you had been known, 

3. If he had been known 3. If they had been known. 

First Future Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

1. If I shall or will be known, 1. If we shall or will be known, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be 2. If ye or you shall or will be 

known, known, 

3. If he shall or will be known. 3. If they shall or will be known. 

Second Future Tense, 
Sing, Plur. 

1. If I shall have been known, 1. If we shall have been known, 

2. If thou wilt have been 2. If ye or you will have been 

known, known, 

3. If he will have been known. 3. If they will have been known* 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be known Perfect. To have been known. 

Participles. 
Imperfect, Being known. 

Compound Perfect, Having been known. 



EXERCISES ON THE INFLECTION OF WORDS. 

THE NOUN. 
L Number. — Point out which of the following Nouns ad^ 
mif of number : — 

Ark, Babelj church, DariuSj elm, France, girl, hamlet, innkeeper, 
itom 



EXERCISES. 



93 



What is the Number of the following Nouns? 
Berries, church, days, hills, lashes, mosses, nuts, pence, planets, silk. 

Pronounce and spell the Plural of the following Nouns: — 
Ass, army, book, brush, chair, city, delay, dandy, envoy, fly, fox, 
grandee, hero, horse, inch, jelly, knife, lake, monarch, negro, pass, 
penny, queen, rebus, rostrum, scarf, stratum, watch, whiiF. 

How do we form the Plural of, 
Die, dwarf, dungeon, fife, fish, folio, genius, grotto, hoof, index, joy, 
lamina, ox, pea, radius, seraph, sheep, tooth, virtuoso? 

Correct the Errors in the following expressions:-^ 

Two foxs, old folioes, sharp reproves, young calfs, tall footmans, they 
are brethren sons of the same father, two dwarves, how many 
swines ? I have two foots, handsome ladys, idle boies, sturdy oxes, 
volcanos are generally on islands. 



The foregoing Exercises may be recited orally, and also may be written. Those which 
follow, referring to the Pictures, are to be written. 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN BY THE PUPIL. 




Wolf Hunt. 

Write sentences referring to this picture, including nouns in the singu- 
lar number, and nouns in the plural number, with verbs and adjec* 
fives. 



94 



ETYMOLOGY. 




A Conversation. 
Write sentences referring to this picture, including nouns in the singu* 
lar number^ and nouns in the plural number, with verhs, articles, and 
adjectives. Introduce proper names, by giving names to the persons 
represented in the picture. 




Hop-Gathering. 

Write sentences referring to this picture, including nouns in hath 
hers, pronouns, articles, verhs, and adjectives. 




The Village School. 
Write sentences referring to this picture, including nouns in loth num- 
bers , articles, pronouns, verhs, adjectives, and adverbs. 



EXERCISES. ^ 95 

2. Gender. — What is the gender of, 

Boy, Charles, child, cousin, dog, father, farthing, friend, horse, hunts- 
man, inkstand, Irefend, joy, king, lass, master, parent, quantity, 
stag, widower. 

"(Convert the following Masculine Nouns into Feminine Nouns, pronounc- 
ing and spelling the Feminine: — 

Drake, duke, earl, emperor, gentleman, hart, hero, host, hunter, lion, 
male-child, master, nephew, shepherd, widower. 

Correct the Errors in the following expressions: — 

Alexander, my sister. David is a widow. Eliza is a bridegroom. 
Charles the Second was a bad queen. She was my benefactpress. 
How sweet a songsteress ! This is my tutress. O the traitoress ! 
Look at that goatess. 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 




Charity. 



Write sentences referring to this picture, including nouns in loth gen^ 
derSf with verbs and adjectives. 



96 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Domestic Scene. 
Write sentences referring to this picture, including nouns in both geU" 
dersj with verbs and adjectives. Introduce proper nouns » 




The Boy and the Geese. 
Write sentences referring to this picture, including nouns in both gen* 
ders, with articles, verbs, adjectives, Q.nd pronouns. 




The Procession. 

Write nouns referring to this picture, including nouns in the masculine 
devj with verbs, articles, adjectives, and pronouns. 



EXERCISES. 



97 



3. Case. — Point out the Nouns in the folloivins' Sentences, 
and mention in what Case each of them is, 

John struck the table. 

John's horse kicked James. 

My brother's dog bit me, but I stoned my brother's dog. 

The wall of the city shelters my father's house. 

My father's house is sheltered by the wall of the city. 

Men's thoughts are vanity. 

Dedifie the following Nouns j both orally and in writing:—' 
Ass, author, beau, Charles, hero, mother, parent, queen, ruler, wo- 
man. 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 




Domestic Scene. 



Write sentences referring to this picture, includmg nouns in the nomi- 
native, and nouns in the objective case, articles^ verbs, and adjectives. 




The Accusation. 



Write sentences including ?iouns in the nominative, possessive, and ob- 
jective cases, verbs, adjectives, and articles, 
9 



98 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Gleaners. 
Write sentences including nouns in the nominative and possessive 
cases, articles, verbs, adjectives, and pronouns. 




The Pigs and their Keeper. 
Write sentences including nouns in the nominative and objective cases, 
articles, verbs, adjectives, a.nd pronouns. 




The Gardener. 
Write sentences referring to this picture, introducing nouns, verbs, 
adjectives, and articles, and showing the inflections of nouns, in nttm- 
her, gender, and case. , 



EXERCISES. 




The Miser and his Poor Relations. 



Write sentences showing the inflections of nouns ^ in nuniber^ geTider, 
and case; and introducing proper, as well as common nouns. 




Fanny and Lucy at Play. 



Write sentences showing the inflections of nouns, in number, gender ^ 
and case; and introducing proper nouns. 



100 



ETYMOLOGY. 



. THE ADJECTIVE. 

Foint out the Adjectives, in the following list, which admit of compari- 
son :'— 

Able, beautiful, circular, cold, evil, few, four, full, golden, hilly, ill, 
just, long, mournful, ninth, open, right, square, supreme, universal, 
worshipful, worthy. 

What degree of comparison are, 

Ancient, better, costliest, dreary, envious, gayest, huge, lazy, more, 
most, tremendous, next, superior, uttermost ? 

Fro7iounce and Spell the comparatives and superlatives of, 

Bad, big, coy, cruel, faithful, grave, hale, ill, little, low, mad, pretty, 
pure, true, white, worthless. 

Correct the following expressions: — 

The good scholar is happyer, as well as attentiver than the idler. 
Spring is the beautifullest season of the year ; summer is the hotest ; 
winter is the gloomyest; autumn is the livelyest. I have done it 
the rightest way, and deserve the chiefest price. John is littler, but 
gooder than you. 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 




The Pedlar. 



Write sentences referring to this picture, including adjectives in the 
positive degree, nouns, articles, and verbs. 



EXEUCISES. 



101 




Conversation on the Road. 



Write sentences introducing nouiis, articles, and verbs, with adjectives 
in. the positive and comparative degrees. 




Sickness. 



Write sentences including nouns, verbs, and articles, with adjectives in 
the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees. 




The Cow. 

Write sentences including nouns, adjectives in the positive and compa' 
rative degrees, verbs, articles, and adverbs. 
9* 



102 ETYMOLOGY. 

THE PRONOUN. 

What kind of Fronoun is, 
Who, self, he, she, we, they, that, whether, our, their, which, what; 
thy, thou ? 

Tell the Person, Niimher, Gender, and Case, of each of the following 

Pronouns:--' 

Him, us, I, them, thine, yours, theirs, ours, ye, he, she, mine, we. 

Parse the following sentences, telling the Number, Gender, and Case of 
Nouns; the degrees of comparisofi of the Adjectives; and the Person, 
Number, Gender, and Case, of the Pronouns:—^ 
I love the boy who loves his lesson. 
I dislike these idle fellows. 
Charles and David are the best wrestlers, but the worst scholars in 

their respective classes. 
The girl who gained the third prize last year is the head of her class 

this year : she deserves the highest praise. 
Many children, whose parents are poor, attain to learning, wealth and 

honour. 
Good character, and good education, are surer roads to eminence than 

either large estates or illustrious birth. 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 




Starting on a Journey. 



Write sentences showing the infections of the 'personal pronouns ii3 
number, and case. 



EXERCISES. 



103 




The Steam-Boat. 
Write sentences showing the inflections of the relative pronouns in case. 




The Domestic Cat. 
Write sentences showing the inflections of the demonstrative pronouns 
in number. 




The Shepherd 
Write sentences showing the infiections of the personal, and adjectw§ 
pronouns. 



104 ETYMOLOGY, 1 

THE VERB. 
lV%at are the names of the following parts of the Verh? 
Writing, learned, to love, run, flattering, hasten, hastened, to move, 
defeated, conquering, strike but hear me, come and try, come to try, 
hating, defended. 

Regular Verbs to he inflected after the manner of ^^ to love.^' 
Ask, attend, bestow, cancel, command, commend, conquer, defend, 
dismiss, finish, gain, guard, learn, order, please, pray, prohibit, re- 
store, walk* 

Irregular Verbs, to be inflected after the manner of ^^ to write.^^ 
Begin, blow, choose, draw, fall, freeze, fly, give, go, hide, know, lade, 
he, slide, take, wear, weave. 

Tell the Person, Number, Mood, and Tense, of 
I struck 5 he is ; we have \ thou lovest ; thou art ; I had ; we were \ 
I wrote ; thou abodest ; ye brought ; I cast ; you thrust ; they shall 5 
we would ; they are ; thou hast ; I bled ; I am ; they fled ; we shone ; 
they wept ; he were ; you were. 
I have written. He should fear. V/e had loved. You shall be writ- 
ing. They may flatter. They are smitten. It is sold. They could 
lead. We should have finished. They were beaten. I do say. 
They will come. We had been playing. Thou hast been trifling* 
They are hastening. They might rejoice. You can speak. 
I do speak. Thou art writing. He shall have commanded. We did 
read. You might work. They had finished. Thou hast heard. 
We may run. I had been sailing. You shall be walking. I might 
have been toiling. I can stop. He is injured. They were struck. 
He could have hastened. We have been rejoicing. They had been 
beaten. 

Parse the following passages, not only naming the parts of Speech, but 
telling their Case, Tense, (^c. 

He is the temperate man, whose health directs his appetite ; who is 
best pleased with what best agrees with him ; who eats, not to gratify 
his taste, but to preserve his life ; who is the same at every table as 
at his own ; who when he feasts is not cloyed ; and sees all the deli- 
cacies before him that luxury can accumulate, yet preserves a due 
abstinence amidst them. 

La Roche was a protestant clergyman of Switzerland. He was a de- 
vout man, as became his profession. He possessed devotion in all 
its warmth, but with none of its asperity ; I mean that asperity which 
men, called devout, sometimes indulge in. Affliction for the loss 
of a beloved wife brought on a long and Ungering illness, for which 



EXERCISES. 105 

travelling was prescribed. His amiable daughter and only child was 
the companion of his travels. After an ineffectual and melancholy 
journey, he was returning home, when he was suddenly seized with 
a dangerous disorder, at a small town in France, where a celebrated 
Brhish philosopher then resided. 
The sorrow for the dead is the only sorrow from which we refuse to 
be divorced. Every other wound we seek to heal — every other 
affliction to forget ; but this wound we consider it a duty to keep 
open — this affliction we cherish and brood over in solitude. Where 
is the mother who would willingly forget the infant that perished 
like a blossom from her arms, though every recollection is a pang ? 
Where is the child that would willingly forget the most tender of 
parents, though to remember be but to lament ? Who, even in the 
hour of agony, over whom he mourns ? Who, even when the tomb 
is closing upon the remains of her he most loved ; when he feels his 
heart, as it were, crushed in the closing of its portal ; would accept of 
consolation that must be bought by forgetfulness ? — No, the love 
which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of the soul. 

At last 
The clouds consign their treasures to the fields; 
And, softly shaking o'er the dimpled pool 
Prelusive drops, let all their moisture flow 
In large effusion o'er the freshened world. 
The stealing shower is scarce to patter heard 
By such as wander through the forest walk 
Beneath the umbrageous multitude of leaves. 
But who can hold the shade while Heaven descends 
In universal bounty, shedding herbs, 
And fruits, and flowers, on Nature's ample lap! 
Swift Fancy, fired, anticipates their growth; 
And while the milky nutriment distils. 
Beholds the kindhng country colour round! 

I'll prove the word that I have made my theme, 

Is, that that may be doubled wuhout blame, 

And that that that thus trebled I may use ; 

And that \h^i that, that critics may abuse. 

May be correct. Farther the Dons to bother, 

Five thats may closely follow one another ! 

For be it known that we may safely write, 

Or say — That that that that that man writ was right! 

Nay ev'n, That that that that that that has followed 

Through six repeats, the grammar's rule has hallowed ! 

And that that that — that "that" that that began 

Repeated seveii times is right! — Deny 't who can? 



106 



ETYMOLOGY. 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 




Write sentences illustrating the inflections of the verb to have, in the 
indicative mood. 



MODEL. 

The traveller has his cloak drawn closely about him. He liad a hat ; 
but the wind blew it away. He has had hot sunshine on the plain ; 
he will have rough winds to encounter in ascending the mountain ; 
but when he shall have had the perseverance to reach the summit, 
all his toils will be amply rewarded. 




A Sea Fight. 

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of the verb to have in the 
potential mood. 



EXERCISES. 



107 




The Eagle and ihe Tortoise. 

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of the verb to have, in the 
imperative, subjunctive, and infinitive moods. 




The Bear and the Travellers. 

Write sentences introducing the participles of the verb to have. 




The Dog and the Wolf. 

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of the verb to he, in the 
indicative mood. 



108 



ETYMOLOGY. 




The Eagle, the Cat, and the Hog. 

Write sentences illustrating the injiections of the verb to be, in the 
potential, and imperative moods. 




The Shipwreck. 

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of the verb to he, in the 
subjunctive mood. 




The Fox and the Stork. 

Write sentences introducing the participles of the verb to he. 



EXERCISES. 



109 




A Battle. 
Write sentences illustrating the inflections of regular verbs in the in 
dicative mood. 




The General. 
Wtite sentences illustrating the inflections of regular verbs in the poten^ 
tial mood. 




The Assassin. 
Write sentences illustrating the inflections of regular verbs in the sub" 
iuTictive mood, 

10 



110 



ETYMOLOGY. 




The Crow and the Pitcher. 



Write sentences illustrating the inflections of regular verbs in the im- 
perative and infinitive moods. 




The Prisoner. 

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of irregular verbs in the 
indicative mood. 




The Stork and the Frogs. 

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of irregular verbs in the 
potential mood. 



EXERCISES. 



Ill 




A Battle. 



Write sentences illustrating the 'mfiections of irregular and regular 
verbs in the subjunctive mood. 




Death of Wat Tyler. 

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of irregular verbs in the 
imperative and infinitive moods. 




The Wolf and the Crane. 

Write sentences illustrating the participles of regular and irregular 
verbs. 



112 ETYMOLOGY. 

I 1 1 . D E R I V A T I N . 

167. Derivation is that part of Etymology which treats of 
the Origin and Primary Signification of Words. 

[As this part of Etymology forms a distinct subject of study, in a great measure uncon- 
nected with the usual routine of grammatical instruction, it has been separated from the 
remainder of this Treatise, and thrown into the Appendix, for the greater convenience of 
Teachers and Pupils.] 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

168. Syntax treats of the construction and arrangement 
of words in a sentence. 

169. A Sentence is a number of words so arranged as to 
form a complete proposition. 

Thus the words, '' A boy too fond of play," do not form a sentence, 
because they do not contain a distinct proposition. But, "A boy too 
fond of play often neglects his lessons," is a sentence. 

170. Sentences are divided into Simple and Complex, 

171. A simple sentence consists of one proposition ; as, 

** Time flies swiftly." "The music of birds and the perfume of 
flowers filled the grove." 

172. A complex sentence consists of two or more proposi- 
tions combined, and the propositions of which it is composed 

are called members^ or clauses ; as, 

'' James, though he had read many books, was not a good scholar." 

173. The clauses of a complex sentence are either ^Wnct- 
pal or: parenthetical. 

174. The principal clause contains the leading proposition 
of the sentence, upon which the other clauses or members 
depend. 

167. What is derivation ? 168. What is Syntax ? 169. What is a 
sentence? 170. How are sentences divided? 171. What is a simple 
sentence? 172. What is a complex sentence? 173. How are the 
clauses of a complex sentence divided ? 174. What is the principal clause? 



SYNTAX. 113 

175. A parenthetical, or secondary clause, is that which 
depends on the principal clause, and generally modifies its 
meaning. Thus in the following sentences the clauses in 
italics are parenthetical : — 

''If George would he studious, he would gain the prize. He fails, 
because he is indolent .^^ 

176. Parenthetical or dependent clauses are sometimes 
divided into Adjective, Relative, Participial, Connective, In- 
terjective, Absolute, &c. 

177. An adjective clause is introduced by an adjective; as, 

** A man, diligent in his business, prospers." 

178. A relative clause is introduced by a relative pro- 
noun; as, 

** A man, wJio is diligent in his business, prospers." 

179. A participial clause is introduced by a participle; as, 

" A man, devoted to his business, prospers." 

180. A connective clause is introduced by a conjunction ; as, 
** A man will generally prosper, if he be attentive to his business.^* 

181. An absolute clause is independent of the rest of the 
sentence, in grammatical construction, as it includes what 
is called the Nominative Case Absolute ; as, 

" The lecture being ended, the audience departed." 

182. A sentence is composed of sl Subject and d, Predicate. 

183. The subject of a sentence is that concerning which 
something is affirmed in the sentence. 

184. The predicate expresses that which is affirmed of the 
subject : 

Thus, in the sentence, '' The man walks," " the maiC'* is the subject, 

and ' ' walks' ' is the predicate. 
A distinction is made between the grammatical and the logical subject 

175. What is a parenthetical clause? 176. How are parenthetical 
clauses divided ? 177. What is an adjective clause ? - — Give an exam- 
ple. Why is this an adjective clause ? 178. What is a relative clause ? 
-^Give an example. Why is this a relative clause? 179. What is 
a participial clause? — Give an example. Why is this a participial 
clause ? 180. What is a connective clause ? — Give an example. Why 
is this a connective clause ? 181. Wliat is an absolute clause ? — Give 
an example. Why is this an absolute clause ? 182. What are the ele- 
ments of a sentence? 183. What is the subject of a sentence? 184. 
What is the predicate of a sentence ? — Give examples. What distinc- 
10* 



114 SYNTAX. 

of a proposition. The grammatical subject of a proposition is the 
leading nominative case of the sentence which expresses the propo- 
sition. The logical subject includes the nominative case, and the 
word or words by which its meaning is hmited or modified. 

185. The subject may be expressed : — 

1. By a single noun; as, 

*' George reads." ' 

2. By two or more nouns ; as, 

" George and Henry read." 

3. By a pronoun or pronouns: as, 

'*7walk." '' FoM and /are friends.** 

4. By a noun, joined with other words, to hmit or modify its mean- 
ing ; as, 

^^ A careful and studious hoy will excel." 

** A man in a passion forgets the dictates of reason." 

5. By the infinitive ; as, 

" To deceive was his object." 

6. By sentences, and clauses of sentences ; as, 

*' ' Remember Si, Bartholomew,^ was passed from man to man." 
" To gain freedom was the grand object." 

In all these instances the words printed in Italics are complex names 
of the subject spoken of in their respective sentences. They are 
therefore equivalent to nouns ; and were there single words in the 
language capable of expressing them, these words would be nouns. 

186. The predicate of a sentence must always contain one 
verb : it may contain more than one, besides other parts of 
speech. 

The following are instances of verbs, and restrictive clauses, used as 

predicates ; — 
*' The army retreated." 
*' The army retreated in disorder." 
*' The army retreated in disorder, leaving its baggage and wounded in 

the hands of the enemy." 

187. When the verb of the sentence is transitive, it has 
joined with it a word or words describing the object of the 
verb; as, 

tion is made? 185. How may the subject be expressed ? 186. What 
must the predicate contain? — Give examples. 187. When the verb 
of the sentence is transitive, what has it joined with it? 188. How 



RULES OF CONSTRUCTION. 115 

** John shot the bird.'' 

" The knight claimed his prisoner.'* 

188. The object is often expressed by an infinitive, and 
also by a sentence or part of a sentence; as, 
** William loves to learn.'' ' 
** We should remember that we are/allMe,''^ 



RULES OF SYNTAX 

189. The Rules of Syntax respect either the construction 
or the arrangement of words in a sentence. 

Construction respects the form which words assume, in order to com- 
bine grammatically with other words in the same sentence. 
. Arrangement respects the order in which v/ords stand in a sentence. 



I. RULES OF CONSTRUCTION. 

SUBJECT AND VERB. 

190, Rule L The subject of a sentence, when a noun or 
pronoun, is always in the nominative case; and the verb is 
always of the same number and person with its subject. 

1. When the subject, or nominative, denotes only one thing, the vfrb 
is put in the singular ; as, 

*' John speaks eloquently.'* 

** He is mistaken.',' 

** John or James intends to accompany me."* 

*' Cassar, as well as Cicero, was remarkable for his eloquence.'' 

*' Either he or she is wrong," 

*' To forgive is divine." 

** That such a misfortune should befall your house, and mar your 
prospects, grieves me exceedingly." 

* It is an error to say, as is commonly done, that when different sube 
jects are disjoined by a conjunction they are alwa)'s followed by a verb 
m the singular; for the predicate may be applied to the different sub- 
jects, and therefore may contain a plural verb. Thus we usually say, 
*' Neither you nor I are in fault,'' — not " * is' or * am' in fault." The 
Latin idiom is the same : " Id neque ego, neque tu, fecimus." 

may the object be expressed? 189. What do the rules of syntax re- 
spect? What does construction respect? What does arrangement 
refer to? 190. What is the rule for the nominative case and the 
verb ? — Give e.'camples. When is the verb in the singular ? — 



116 SYNTAX. 

2. When the subject, or nominative, denotes more than one, the verb 
is put in the plural ; as, 

" The birds mroZ." 

*' They are mistaken." 

" Demosthenes and Cicero were great orators/' 

*' Honour, justice, religion itself, were derided by these profligate 

wretches." 
** He and she go in company." 
** To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in the open 

air, and to preserve the mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the 

best preservatives of health." 

3. Collective nouns are followed by a verb in the singular or plural, 
according as the idea of unity or plurality is meant to be expressed ; as, 

" The army is on its march." 
*'The clergy aie divided among themselves." 
The person of the subject, or nominative, determines the person of the 
verb ; as, 

**I am at my post." 
''Thou Shalt not steal." 
'' John reads his lesson." 
Nouns are always of the third person, except when they are employed 
to name the person addressed ; in which case they are of the second 
person; as, 

*' Our Father who art in Heaven." 
Relative pronouns are of the same person with their correlatives ; as, 
" I who am now present." 
"Thou, Lord, who knowesi the heart." 
*' The Lord who seeth us." 
Infinitives, and parts of sentences which are employed as nominatives 
to verbs, are always reckoned of the third person ; as, 
*' To be afraid to do evil is true courage." 
'* For sinners to be proud is the height of inconsistency.** i 



OBJECT. 

19L Rule H. The object of a transitive verb, when ex- 
pressed by a noun, or pronoun, is put in the objective case ; as, 

When is the verb in the plural? — Give examples. What is the rule for 
collective nouns? — Give examples. What determines the person of 
the verb ? — Give examples. When are nouns in the second, and when 
in the third person? — Give examples. What is the rule for the per- 
son of relative pronouns ? — Give examples. In what person are infini- 
tives, and parts of sentences, when employed as nominatives ? — Give 
examples. 191. What is the rule for the object? 192. What is the 



RULES OF CONSTRUCTION. 117 

* If ye love me, keep my commandments.^* 

* This is the man whom the king delighteth to honour/* 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

192. Rule III. When two nouns, or a noun and pronoun 
are used to denote the possessor and the thing possessed, 
the name of the possessor is put in the ^o^^e^^ire case; as, 

" In my Father's house.* 

** On eagles^ wings.'* 

*' Thine is the kingdom.** 

** The child whose father is dead.'* 

1. When the name of the possessor is a complex noun, or a noun made 
up of two or more words, the last mentioned word only receives the 
sign of the possessive case ; as, 

^^ Julius CcBsar^s Commentaries.** 

" John the BaptisV s head.'* 

" Oliver (f- Boyd's printing-office.'* 

2. The name of the thing possessed, when it is obvious, is often 
omitted ; as, 

*' He went to see >S'^ Peter^s, at Rome ;" that is, St. Peter's Church. 
** I am going to the magistrate^ s;^^ that is, the magistrate's house. 

193. Rule IV. Nouns or personal pronouns, when added 
to other nouns or pronouns, to explain them, are put in the 
same case with them by apposition ; as, 

'* Paul the Apostle wrote to the Romans." 

•* The leader was taken, he who defied the law." 

** Brutus killed CcBsar, him who had been his friend." 

194. Rule V. Pronouns agree with their correlatives in 
gender, number, and person ; as, 

" The queen put on her royal apparel." 

** The river is swollen ; it overflows its banks." 

*' The trees have lost their foliage." 

*' Thou who art mighty." 

** The hoy who writes the letter." 

*' The letter which* is written." 

* Formerly which was used in the masculine and feminine, as well 
as in the neuter gender, and consequently joined with persons as well 

rule respecting the possessive case? What is the ruie for complex 
nouns? When is the name of the thing possessed omitted? 193. 
What is the rule for apposition? — Give examples. 194. What is the 
rule for pronouns, and their correlatives? — Give examples. What is 



118 SYNTAX. 

1. When the correlative of the pronoun is a clause, or part of a sen- 
tence, the pronoun is put in the neuter gender, singular number, and 
third person ; as, 

** It grieves me to hear of your illness. ^^ 

** She was over indulgent to her children^ which is a sin.'* 

2, When a pronoun relates to tvi^o nouns or pronouns in different per- 
sons collectively, it takes the first person plural in preference to the 
second, and the second in preference to the third ; as, 

" He and I shared it between ms." 

** You and John are welcome ; I rejoice to see you both." 

*' You and he and I have our difficulties." 

** You and he have your doubts." 

195. Rule VI. The pronoun it, when the nominative to a 
verb, is often used indefinitely, and is applied to persons as 
well as to things ; to the first person and second, as well as 
to the third ; and to a plural as well as to a singular ; as, 

" It is the king." 

" It is I, be not afraid." 

** It was you who did it." 

** It is these fetters that vex me." 

196. Rule VII. The adjective pronouns this and that^ 
agree in number with the nouns which they describe ; as, 

" This book," *' t?tat map," ** these books," " those maps." 
This rule is violated in such expressions as, ** these kind of people," 
*' those sort of things." 

1. Every, though generally construed with a singular noun, is joined 
to a plural noun when the things it denotes are conceived as form- 
ing an aggregate; as, *' every twelve years ;^^ that is, every period 
of twelve years. 

2. All is joined with a singular noun, when it refers to quantity, and 
with a plural noun when it refers to number ; as, 

** Six days shalt thou labour and do all thy work,*^ 
^^ All men are mortal." 

as things. Such expressions as " mighty men which were of old," are 
common in the authorized version of the Scriptures ; indeed, there are 
not many instances in the English Bible ofwho^ applied to persons. 

the rule when the correlative of a pronoun is a clause or part of a sen., 
tence ? — Give examples. What is the rule when a pronoun refers to 
two nouns or pronouns in different persons? — Give examples. 195, 
What is the rule respecting the pronoun it? — Give examples. 196. 
What is the rule respecting this and that ? — Give examples. How is 
this rule violated ? What is the remark respecting every ? — Give 
examples. — What is the remark respecting all ? — Give examples-^ 



RULES OF CONSTRUCTION. 119 

3. i^any, though significant of plurality, is sometimes construed with a 
noun in the singular ; as, 

" Many a flower is born to blush unseen." 

4. More, when the comparative of much, and denoting a greater quan- 
tity, is joined with a noun in the singular ; but when the comparative 
of many^ and denoting a greater number, it is joined with a noun in 
the plural ; as, ** more fruit ;^^ *' more men^ 



ARTIC LE. 

197. Rule VIII. The indefinite article, a or an, is prefixed 
to nouns in the singular nurnber ; as, a horse ; an orange. 

198. Rule IX. The definite article, the^ may be prefixed 
to nouns in the singular or plural number ; as, the horse, 
tke oranges. 

\, A, when combined with the numerals many and/ew), admits a noun 
in the plural ; as, " a few persons, a great many men." 

2. A is used before words beginning with a consonant, the long sound 
of tt, and vowels sounding Uke w. An is used before words begin- 
ning with a vowel or a silent A; as, 

"J. boy;" "a unicorn;" " many a one." 
" An acorn ;" "aw hour." 

3. When two or more nouns or adjectives, descriptive of the same 
thing, are joined together, the article is prefixed only to the first of 
them ; if the nouns describe different things, the article is prefixed to 
each of them separately ; as 

** I bought a black and white cow, which cost twelve pounds." 

** I bought a black and a white cow, which cost each twelve pounds." 

VERBS. 

199. Rule X. Some transitive verbs, as, give, tell, send, 
promise, allow, admit two objective cases after them, the one 
denoting the object and the other the person ; as, 

What is the remark respecting many ? — Give examples. — Respecting 
more? — Give examples. 197. What is the rule respecting the indefi- 
nite article ? — Give examples. 198. What is said of prefixing the defi- 
nite article? — Give examples. What is the rule for the article with 
respect to two or more nouns or adjectives descriptive of the same 
thing ? — Give examples. 199. What is the rule for two objective cases 
after a transitive verb ? — Give examples. What is the rule for an 



120 SYNTAX. 

** He gave it me."* 
''Resent it us.''* 
** He allowed me great liberty.''* 
** He promised us many benefits."* 
The same verbs, especially in colloquial discourse, admit an objective 
case after the pe^ssive voice ; as, 

** I was allowed great liberty." 

"■ She was offered them by her mother." 

*' He was forbid the presence of the king." 

200. Rule XI. The verb to he has the same case after it 
as before it ; as, 

" /i is 7, be not afraid." 

''It is he." 

" You believed it to be him." 

" Whom do they represent me to be." 

201. Rule XH. The infinitive of a verb is always preceded 
by the sign to, except when it follows the verbs, hid, dare, 
feel, hear, let, need, makey see, or the generic verbs, may, can^ 
shall, will, and must ; as, 

"He ordered me to hasten.'^ 
" He bade me go." 
" I saw him strike the boy." 
Dare, when it signifies to challenge or defy, is also construed with 
to; as, 

"I dare thee but to breathe upon my love." 

In the English version of the Bible, the verb to make is similarly con- 
strued ; as, 

" He maketh his sun to rise." 

202. Rule XIII. Participles, when they retain the sense 
of the verb, are construed as the verbs to which they be- 
long ; but when they are employed as nouns, they are fol- 
lowed by of; as, 

** He is well situated for gaining wisdom." 

" He is well situated for the gaining of wisdom." 

* It is not improbable that all these expressions are elliptical ; the 
preposition to being understood before the personal pronouns, 

objective case after a passive verb ? — Give examples. 200. What case 
has the verb to be after it ? — Give examples. 201. When is the infini- 
tive not preceded by the sig^n to? — Give examples. What is said of 
dare? -'Of make? 202. What is the rule for participles ? — Give 



RULES OF CONSTRUCTION. 121 

203. Rule XIV. Participles, when used as nouns, or as 
parts of complex nouns, are frequently preceded by a noun 
or pronoun in the possessive case ; as, 

'* I am averse to the nation's involving itself in war^ 

204. Rule XV. When a noun or pronoun is joined with 
a participle, without being dependent on any other word in 
the sentence, it is put in the nominative case ; as, 

" We being exceedingly tossed, they lightened the ship.'* 

This construction is commonly called the nominative absolute. 

The imperfect participle, without being connected with a noun or pro- 
noun, often introduces an absolute clause, as an adjunct to a sen- 
tence ; as, 

** Generally speaking, the people are industrious." 

** It is not possible to act otherwise, consideriiig the weakness of our 
nature." 

The infinitive is also sometimes used in an absolute, or independent 
sense ; as, 

*' To speak the truth, we are all liable to error." 

PREPOSITIONS. 

205. Rule XVI. The object of a preposition, when ex- 
pressed by a noun or pronoun, is put in the objective 
case J as, 

" He came behind wie." 

*' The man with whom you are acquainted." 

The preposition to is often omitted, especially after the adverbs nigh, 
near, &lc., and before the personal pronouns ; as, 

** He came near the city,'''' that is, '■^ near to the city J' ^ 
" He sent me the book," that is, ^'to iwe." 

conjunctions. 

206. Rule XVII. Conjunctions connect nouns and pro- 
nouns in the same case ; as, 

*' You and iare schoolfellows." 

" The master struck him and not »ie." 

examples. 203. When does a participle govern the possessive case? — 
Give examples. 204. What is the rule for the nominative case abso- 
hite ? — Give examples. 205. What is the rule for prepositions govern- 
ing the objective case ? — Give examples. When is to omitted ? — 
Give examples. 206. What do conjunctions connect? — Give examples. 



122 SYNTAX. 

" You may do it as easily as /." 
"He will as soon punish you as me." 
" You are older than J." 
"I love you better than Am." 
*' Better it should be yours than mine.^^ 
Than was formerly used as a preposition, and took an objective case 
after it. When joined with a relative pronoun, it still retains its 
character of preposition ; as, 

" Alfred, than whom a better king never reigned." 

207. Rule XVIII. Some conjunctions are employed as 
correlatives to each other ; thus, 

Both is followed by and; as, " Both you and I did it." 

Either, by or; as, "I will either come or send." 

Neither, by nor; as, " Neither John nor James is fit for it." 

Though or although, by yet; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust 

in him." 
Whether, by or; as, " Whether he go or stay." 
In like manner, the conjunction that follows the adverb so, and the 

adjective such, when it denotes "so great ;" as, 
" You have so incensed him that he will punish you." 
" Their arrogance was such, that even good men turned away in 

disgust." 
The adverbs not only, and not merely, are often followed by the con- 
junction but, in connexion with also or likewise; as, 

" He was not only harmless, but he was also wise." 

208. Rule XIX. The generic verbs are often omitted 
before specific verbs, v^hen preceded by the conjunctions, 
if, though, unless, &C. ; as, 

" Though he slay me," that is, " though he should slay me." 
"If thou be afflicted, repine not," that is, "if thou shouldst be af- 
flicted."* 

* Such phraseologies as, " he slay," " thou be," &c., are generally 
considered as indicating the subjunctive mood; that is, the form of the 
verb peculiar to clauses which are subjoined to others by means of the 
conjunctions, if, though, &c. But it is plain that these conjunctions 
exercise no influence over the verb. The reason of the peculiar form is, 
that the idea of contingency is present to the mind of the speaker or 
writer, and is meant to be expressed — (the same reason, indeed, that 
gives rise to the use of the conjunctions themselves in these cases.) Ac- 

207. What conjunctions are employed as correlatives? — Give exam- 
ples. What is said of so and that 7 208. When are the generic verbs 



RULES OF CONSTRUCTION. 123 

INTERJECTIONS. 

209. Rule XX. Interjections are joined with the objective 
case of the pronoun of the first person, and with the nomi- 
native of the pronoun of the second ; as, " Ah me !" " Oh ye 
hypocrites !" 



EXERCISES ON CONSTRUCTION. 

Distinguish between complete, and imperfect Sentences. 

Sudden trust. Sudden trust brings sudden repentance. If the moun- 
tain will not go to Mahomet. If the mountain will not go to Ma- 
homet, let Mahomet go to the mountain. If it were not for hope. 
If it were not for hope, the heart would break. In a calm sea. In 
a calm sea, every man is a pilot. The easiest way to dignity. The 
easiest way to dignity is humility. When bread is wanting. When 
bread is wanting, oaten cakes are excellent. Mildness governs more. 
Mildness governs more than anger. Deride not the unfortunate. 
Wine has drowned more than the sea. Reprove thy friend pri- 
vately ; commend him publicly. Being reproved. Being reproved, 
James began to reform. The ship having sailed. The ship sailed. 
The ship having sailed, the insurance was effected. 

Distinguish Simple from Complex Sentences; and, in the latter, Principal 
from Secondary Clauses. 
Successful guilt is the bane of society. Depend not on fortune, but 
conduct. Idle folks have the most labour. If the counsel be good, 
no matter who gave it. He who teaches often learns himself. 
Where content is, there is a feast. Rewards and punishments are 
the basis of good government. He that lends to all who will borrow, 
shows great good will, but little wisdom. He that spares when he 
is young, may spend when he is old. If you wish a thing done, go ; 
if not, send. Though James studies hard, he enjoys the play-hour. 
Having completed his lessons, he claims his recreation. 

cordingly, the form of the verb is the same when contingency is ex- 
pressed, whether the conjunctions be used or not. " Be you present, or 
he you absent, I will speak," is as grammatical as *' Wliether you be 
present or absent." Besides, it is to be observed, that when certainty, 
and not contingency, is expressed, the verb does not take this elliptical 
form, though preceded by if, though, &c. 

omitted ? — Give examples. 209. What is the rule for interjections ? — 
Give examples. 



124 SYNTAX. 

Give their appropriate Names to the Secondary Clauses , in the following 
Sentences. 

It is a poor art that maintains not the artisan. One that is perfectly 
idle is perfectly weary too, and knows not what he would have or 
do. He that gives to a grateful man, puts out to usury. A me- 
chanic, well skilled in his trade, has his fortune in his hand. A rich 
man, careless in his expenditures, soon comes to poverty. The 
pilot, knowing the dangers of the coast, kept off the shore. The 
traveller, having explored the country, returned home. The ene- 
nqy being fairly beaten, we kept the field. 

Oh ! sweet and beautiful is night, when the silver moon is high, 
And countless stars, like clustering gems, hang sparkling in the sky, 
While the balmy breath of the summer breeze comes whispering down 

the glen, 
And one sweet voice alone is heard — Oh ! night is lovely then. 

But when that voice in feeble moans of sickness and of pain, 
But mocks the anxious ear that strives to catch its sounds in vain. 
When silently we watch the bed, by the taper's flickering hght, 
While all we love is fading fast — - how terrible is night ! 

Distinguish between the Subject and the Predicate, in the following Sen- 
tences; also point out the Object, where it occurs. 

The daylight is fading fast. The sun has set. Many hands make 
light work. To borrow on usury brings sudden beggary. The 
man that is happy in all things, is more rare than the Phcenix. Time 
flies swiftly. Time lost is never recovered. Church bells were 
brought into use in the beginning of the fifth century. The raisins 
brought from Damascus are remarkable for their size. George and 
I are in the same class. Wealth, honour, and ease, are the rewards 
of persevering industry. A conscience void of offence is a rich pos- 
session. A man came to the door, entered the house, and soon 
expelled the inmates. A great warrior, without a sense of justice, 
commits many wrongs. The love of praise is a powerful incentive 
to action. The great discoverer of America, with all his claims to 
the gratitude of his sovereign, was permitted to die in obscurity and 
want. 

Sentences to be corrected. — {See Rule I.) 

Many men is deceived by false appearances. The state of our affairs 
are very prosperous. There is, in fact, no servants in the house. 
Temperance and moderate exercise preserves health. Is your 



EXERCISES. 125 

father and mother at home ? Either danger or fear have brought 
you here. Csesar as well as Cicero were distinguished for eloquence* 
The navy form our natural bulwark, and have often proved our 
defence in time of peril. The youth is not so well educated in this 
tjountry now as formerly. Either John or his brother go to town to- 
day. What avails the highest professions, if the life is not in accord- 
ance with them"? A variety of circumstances are to be taken into 
account. My brother and him are tolerable scholai-s. 



■ O thou my lips inspire, 



Who touch' d Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

These are the men who makes long speeches. The terms are as 
moderate as is consistent with any profit. Has the goods been sold 
to advantage ? America and thee did in each other live. To honour 
your parents, to reverence your teachers, and to be obliging to your 
school-fellows, is the sure way to preferment. Sorrows, hke a flood, 
overwhelms me. The possession of our senses entire, of our limbs 
"uninjured, of a sound understanding, of friends and companions, 
though often overlooked among the many blessings which we enjoy, 
deserve our liveliest gratitude. 

Sentences to he filled up with Verhs. 

There two essential words in language. The first the noun, 

or word by which a thing named ; the second the verb, 

which the state or action of a thing. Fifty pounds of wheal 

forty pounds of flour. The mechanism of clocks and 
watche?! -unknown to the ancients. In him happily 

blended true dignity, with softness of manners. To live soberly, 
i-ighteously, and godly, required of all men. Rehgion, vital 

religion, the religion of the heart, the true source of virtue. 

Without a holy life, what mere professions of excellence? 

Neither of them able to do otherwise. either of them 

then to blame ? His wisdom, and not his riches, admira- 

tion. His having so often offended the reason why he 

so severely punished. The mother, with her family, 
left the neighbourhood. Their rehgion, as well as their manners, 

ridiculed. Town or country equally agreeable to me. 

Do thou. Lord, who above all, come to our aid. Will the 

Lord, Who above all, come to our aid ? That your conduct 
so ineonsistent, most distressing. I am the general officer who 

the orders to-day. I who the orders to-day am a 

general officer* 
11^ 



126 SYNTAX. 

Sentences to he corrected. — • {Rule II.) 
Such folly will ruin ye both. Who have I reason to love, if not my 
father? He and they wc know; but whom are you? They, who 
worth and rank has exalted, deserves our respect. He sent they 
who he thought to belong to his party. He invited my cousin and I 
to spend the hohdays at his house. They that I rebuke before alL 
You should punish the guilty person, not I who is innocent. What- 
ever others do, let yoa and I perform our part. 

Sentences to he corrected. — {Rides II. to VII.) 

The Duke's of Roxburgh forest. The king's of Great Britain's pre- 
rogative. Thy fathers virtue is not thine» It was the men, women ^ 
and children's lot to suffer much affliction. Moses rod was turned 
into a serpent. I called at the bookseller. I had the surgeon, the 
physician, and the apothecary's assistance. The king and queen 
put on his robes. Can any one be sure that their own trials will not 
overcome them. Behold the Moon \ how brightly she shines ; yet 
the light is not its own. He had a companion which corrupted him. 
The Despot was like a beast of prey, who destroys without pity, 
Spare thou them, O God, which confess their sins. There is not a 
state of Europe who does not keep a body of troops in their pay. 
John and you have taken it to themselves. My father and I enjoy 
their meal together. You have taken our portion from James and 
me ; send it them immediately. They were the heretics that first 
began to rail. It were they that were the real offenders. Lie that 
book upon the table and there let it lay. He has laid in bed all the 
morning. 

Sentences to he filled up with Pronouns. -— {Rules II. to VII.) 

You were told was he ; but the truth is, was I. Who is 
that calls my name at this rate : I will punish , be wha 

he may. Females, duty it is not to mingle in public life, 

have own part assigned . I do not think any one 

should incur censure for being tender of reputation. My bro- 

ther and I love occupation. A friend has sent John and you 

the present, in token of his love to . He had an acquaintance 

poisoned his principles. The horse and his rider came 

yesterday have departed to-day. They take the sun out of the 
world take friendship out of it. She took goodly raiment ^ 

was in the house, and put upon Jacob. He is a Nero^ 
is another name for cruelty. 



EXERCISES. 12"/ 

Senlences to he corrected. — {Rules VII. — VIII. — IX.) 

This noble nation has, of all others, admitted fewer corruptions. I 
have not been from home this twenty years. These sort of person 
disregard pubhc opinion. Instead of improving yourself, you have 
been trifling this two hours. How beautiful an house ! it is a hos- 
pital for orphans. Every one of his letters bear this date. Every 
man's daily walk and conversation displays his character. Neither 
of these persons seem to think it possible for them to err. Each 
in their turn receives the benefits to which they are entitled. These 
are the kind of enjoyments that good men aspire after. He pro- 
nounced an eulogium upon the departed statesman. Each of us 
have got some money. None of the British soldiers were able to 
do it. 

Sentences to he corrected. — {Rules X. — XVI.) 

He is really the person who he appears to be. It may be him, but it 
cannot be me. I understood it to be he. It might have been her y 
but there is no proof of it. I know not who has done this kindness 
to me, unless it be him who has so often assisted me before. It is 
better live on little than outhve a great deal. I need not to solicit 
to do a kind action. This was betraying of the trust reposed in him. 
I cannot help regarding him as an enemy, and thou as a deceitful 
friend. He prepared them for the event by sending early intelli- 
gence. By reading of good books, w'e are sure to improve both our 
mind and our morals. Him who was the most powerful havmg; 
been defeated, the conquest of the rest was easy. 

The bleating sheep with my complaints agree, 
Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee. 

Sentences to he corrected. — {Rule XVI.) 

It is for I that the gift is intended. It is -not you who I am displeased 
with. Do you know who you speak to ? What fellowship ought 
there to be between ye, who are holy, and they who are wicked ? 
From he that is needy turn not aw^ay. Who didst thou obtain such 
strange information from ? 

Sentences to he corrected. — {Rules X VII. — X VIII. — XIX.) 

A great intimacy subsist between him and I. You and me have en- 
joyed many a pleasant excursion together. Neither he nor her can 
answer. It is neither high or low. I must be so plain to tell you, 
that you have misapprehended it altogether. He was as distin- 



128 SYNTAX. 

guished in his profession as he imagined. He would not speak him- 
self, nor let any other speak. So ill-informed is the boy, that he is 
qualified for nothing. I gained a son, and such a son as all men 
hailed me happy. There was something so touching in the manner 
in which he told his misfortunes, as affected me more than I can 
express. If he does but touch the mountains, they will smoke. 
Though he robs me of my all, I shall not be able to hate him. If 
a man smite his servant, and he dies, he shall surely be put to death. 
Though God be high, yet he hath respect to the lowly. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES ON CONSTRUCTION. 

Correct the Errors i?i the following Sentences, 

Self-denial, and devotedness to God, is the soul of real religion. 
Neither of them are to be dispensed with. The story was no sooner 
told, but it was universally believed. All the power of ridicule, and 
by the desertion of friends, and the loss of his estate, were not able 
to conquer his spirit. Be ready to assist such deserving persons 
who appear to be destitute of friends. Every friend who we confide 
in change but God. It is not the uttering or the hearing certain 
words that constitute prayer to God. The cHmate of England is 
not so pleasant as those of France, Spain, or Italy. 

The concourse of people were so great as that with great difficulty we 
passed through them. He has already made great progress in his 
studies ; and, if his diligence continues, he will soon fulfil the expec- 
tations of his friends. It is amazing his propensity to this vice, 
against every principle of interest and honour. Whether virtue ad- 
vances our worldly interest or no, we must follow her dictates. I 
have seldom seen such a beautiful flower. I have seldom seen so 
beautiful flowers. I doubt not but that he will fulfil his promise. 
On your future conduct depend your future happiness or misery. 
Was you present when the detail of his toils and sufferings were 
laid before the meeting ? Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, he for- 
bade the coining any metal more precious than iron. By the pupil's 
attainments are the preceptor honoured, and the pupils themselves 
encouraged. Not one in a hundred of those who scoff at the Gospel 
of Christ, know what it is they scoff at. Virtue pursues the lofty 
tenor of its ways, whatever be the difficulty that encompasses it ; 
and sooner or later it will have its reward. The more I see of his 
character, I like him better. It is not only the interest, but duty of 
youth to reverence their parents. The captain had several men 
died in his ship. The Chinese language contains an immense num- 
ber of words ; who, therefore, would learn them must possess a 
powerful verbal memory. The sacrifices that virtue makes will not 



EXERCISES. 129 

only be rewarded hereafter, but recompensed even here. There is 
nothing men are more ignorant of, or which they less understand, 
than their own characters. This is one of the Divine precepts 
which is entitled to special reverence. 

Death's sable shades at once o'ercast their eyes, 
In dust the vanquished and the victor lies. 

Though the manner of Thucydides be dry and harsh, yet, on great 
occasions, he display vast pov/ers of description. 

Supply the Blanks in the following Paragraphs. 

I yesterday passed the whole afternoon in the churchyard, amusing 

with the tombstones and inscriptions I met with. Most 

of them recorded nothing else of the buried person, that he 

born upon one day, and upon anotlier ; the whole history 

of his life comprehended in those two circumstances, thai 

common to mankind. I could not but look upoo 

these registers of existence, brass or marble, as a kind of 

satire upon the departed persons, had left no other memorial, 

that they born and they died. 

When I look upon the tombs of great, every emotion of envy 

dies in ; when I read the epitaphs of the beautiful, every inor- 

dinate desire out ; when meet with the grief of parents 

upon a tombstone, heart v/ith compa,ssioT] ; \xhou I 

see the tomb of the parents , I consider the vanity of griev- 

ing for those we must quickly follow : when I see kings 

lying by those who deposed them, I consider rival wits 

placed side by side, or the holy men that divided the world with 
contests and disputes, reflect, with sorrow and aston- 

ishment, on the little competitions, factions, and debates of mankind. 
When I read the several dates of the tombs, — of some died 

yesterday, and some six hundred years ago, I consider great 

day when we all of be contemporaries, and our 

appearance together. 

Whatever the dispositions, the faculties of the child, w^he- 

ther earlier later in life, the business of father nor 

masters can proceed wisely well, without the co-operation of 

the mother. Who knows so well as the road to the understand- 
ing, the road the heart ? Who has skill like , to encourage 
the timid and repress the ? has power and address like 

a mother's subdue the stubborn and confirm the irresolute ? 

Who with such exquisite art draw out, put in motion, and 

direct ordinary or superior powers ; place goodness in fairest 

and attractive light, and expose in its most hideous 



130 SYNTAX. 

forbidding form ? Iri the case of those persons have 

unhappily deviated from the path of virtue, hov^^ many been 

stopped, converted, brought back, by consideration of maternal 
feehngs, and the recollection of early lessons, and principles, and 
resolutions ! Having been trained up, when a child, in the way 
wherein should walk, the man calls to remembrance in 

old age, returns to , and from no more. 

Hyenas generally inhabit caverns, and other rocky places, whence 

they issue, under cover of the night, to prowl for food. They 

gregarious, not so much from any social principle, from a 

greediness of disposition, and a gluttonous instinct, which 
many to assemble even over a scanty and insufficient prey. They 
are said devour the bodies they find in cemeteries, and 

to disinter as hastily or imperfectly inhumed, 

seems, indeed, to be a peculiar gloominess and malignity of disposi- 
tion in the aspect of the hyena, and manners, in a state of cap- 
tivity, are savage and untractable. Like every other animal, how- 
ever, is perfectly capable of being tamed. 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN BY THE PUPIL. 



The Travellers. 
*:Vrite simple sentences illustrative of this picture. 

MODEL. 

'I'he trfuvellers have found a purse. They will divide the money. 
One of the travellers holds the purse. He is kneeling. The other 
traveller claims his part. They may quarrel. Money is the source 
of many contentions. 



EXERCISES. 



131 




JEbod and the Boys. 
Write simple sentences illustrating this picture. 




The Prince instructed. 
Write simple and complex sentences illustrative of this picture. 




The Fox and the Rat. 
Write complex sentences illustrative of this picture, introducing some 
of the diflferent kinds of complex sentences, as adjective j relative^ &-€. 



132 



SYNTAX. 




The two Pots. 
Write sentences illustrating Rule I. (the Subject and the Verb). 




The Prince shown to the People by the King. 
Write sentences illustrating the second observation under Rule I. 




A General leading an Army to Battle. 

Write sentences illustrating the third observatio?i under Rule I., re- 
specting collective nouns. 



EXERCISES. 



133 




Birds of Prey. 
Write sentences illustrating Rule II. {Object). 




The Rescue. 
Write sentences illustrating Rule III. {Possessive case). 




Execution of Lady Jane Grey. 

Write sentences illustrating Rule IV. {Appositim). 



12 



134 




The Prisoner in danger. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule V. 




Labour and Rest. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule VI. 




An Engagement at Sea. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule VIII. 



EXERCISES. 



135 




The Fox and the Frog. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule IX. 




King John signing Magna Charta. 
Write sentences illustrating Rule X. 




The Petitioner. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XI. 



136 



SYNTAX. 




Death of Cardinal Wolsey. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XII. 




A windy Day. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XIII. 

MODEL. 
The man could not prevent the wind from taking off his wig. This 
will teach him the necessity of tying it on securely. He will be 
tired of running after it. He holds up his cane for the purpose of 
catching it. 




The Wolf and the Lamb. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XIV, 




137 



War, 



Write sentences illustrative of Rule XIV. 




The Country Mouse entertaining the Town Mouse. 
Write sentences illustrating Rule XV. 




12* 



The Dead Bird. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XVI. 



138 



SYNTAX. 




Edward, the Black Prince, with his Prisoner, the King of France. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XVIL 




The Culprit. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XVIII. 




The Captive. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rules XIX., and XX. 



RULES OF ARRANGEMENT. 139 

II. RULES OF ARRANGEMENT. 

210. The words of a sentence may be arranged either in 
the Conventional or Rhetorical order. 

211. The Conventional Order is that arrangement of words 
which is most usual in the language. 

212. The Rhetorical Order varies from the usual arrange- 
ment, for the purpose of rhetorical effect. 

The conventional order is best suited for the ordinary purposes of 
speech ; as, narration, description, and reasoning. 

The rhetorical order is generally dictated by passion, emotion, or fancy, 
and belongs to the higher efforts of eloquence or poetry, or to those 
compositions where great attention is paid to rhetorical expression. 

213. The following are some of the leading rules of ar- 
rangement. 

SUBJECT AND VERB. 

214. Rule XXL In sentences conventionally arrRnged, the 
subject or nominative case precedes the verb, in all cases, 
except four; as, " James walks;" " Time is precious." 

The following are the four exceptions to this rule : 

1. When the sentence is interrogative ; as, 

"Are wealth and power necessary to happiness?" 

2. When the sentence is imperative ; as, 

" Go thou to the prophet." 

3. When the verb is preceded by there, here, hence, then, thus, yet, so, 
nor, neither, such, herein, therein, wherein, &c. ; as, 

"There was no rain." 
"Here are the companies." 
"Hence arise wars and convulsions." 

4. A few phrases, such as, said he, replied they, are deviations from 
ijie general rule, which scarcely deserve notice. 

215. Rule XXII. In sentences rhetorically arranged, the 
predicate often precedes the subject ; as, 

"Forgot were want, disease and death, by that impassioned throng." 

210. How may the words of a sentence be arranged? 211. What 
is the conventional order ? 212. What is the rhetorical order ? What 
is the conventional order suited for ? — What is the rhetorical order 
suited for ? 214. What is the twenty-first rule ? What are the four 
exceptions? 215. What is the twenty-second rule? 216. What is 



140 SYNTAX. 

VERB AND ITS OBJECT. 

216. Rule XXIII. In sentences conventionally arranged, 
the transitive verb generally precedes its object ; as, 

"I tread reviving passions down." 
Exception I. When tlie object is a relative pronoun, it generally pre- 
cedes the verb ; as, 

'* I am the man whom you seek." 
Exception II. When the object is preceded by such words as, what- 
eveVf whatsoever, &c. it precedes the verb ; as, 

"Whatever he designs, he accomplishes." 

217. Rule XXIV. In rhetorical sentences, the object, 
when emphatic, precedes the verb ; as, 

^^ Thy fruit full well the school-boy knows, 
Wild bramble of the brake !" 
This inversion often takes place in poetry ; as, 
" But suddenly a holy awe the vengeful clamour still'd." 
" The spotted pestilence with war, awhile the feast had shared." 

POSITION OP ADJECTIVES. 

218. Rule XXV. In conventio7ial sentences the adjective 
is generally placed immediately before the noun which it 
qualifies; as, 

*'An old man." "A skilful physician." 
There are four exceptions to this rule ; viz. 

1. When the adjective is used as a title ; as, 

"Peter the Great:' "Charles the Twelfth:' 

2. When there are several adjectives joined with the same noun ; as, 

"A statesman, honest, capable, oxi^ faithful:' 

3. When the adjective is modified by other words ; as, 

" A house full of people:' 

4. When the adjective expresses measure or extent ; as, • 

*'A man six feet high:' "A plain thirty miles square:' 

219. Rule XX VL In rhetorical sentences, the adjective 
often begins the sentence ; as, 

^^ Dear is my little native vale." 

" Sweet is the remembrance of a virtuous deed." 

the twenty-third rule? — What are the exceptions ? 217. What is the 
twenty-fourth rule ? 218. What is the twenty-fifth rule ? — What are 
the exceptions ? 219. What is the twenty-sixth rule ? 220. What is 



RULES OF ARRANGEMENT. 141 

POSITION OF PRONOUNS. 

220. Rule XXVII. When the personal pronouns come 
together, the pronoun of the second person is placed before 
that of thethh'd; and the pronoun of the first person is 
placed after those of the second and third ; as, 

** You and George may remain here, William and I will go to the 
city." 

221. Rule XXVIII. The relative pronouns, with their 
clauses, must be placed as near as possible to their antece- 
dents. 

Thus, in these lines, the relative is too far removed from the ante- 
cedent : 

" The rose had been vs^ash'd, just wash'd in a shower, 
Which Mary to Anna convey' d." 

POSITION OF THE INFINITIVE AND THE AUXILIARIES. 

222. Rule XXIX. In conventional sentences the infinitive 
is placed after the verb on which it depends, though often 
separated from it by other words ; as, 

** I requested him to return.^' 

*' I requested him, if he valued my friendship, to return.''^ 

223. Rule XXX. In rhetorical sentences, the principal 
verb often precedes the auxiliary ; as, 

" Go you must, and go you shall, let the consequences be what they 

may." 
** Have it he would, cost what it might." 

POSITION OF ADVERBS. 

224. Rule XXXI. In conventional sentences, adverbs 
should be placed as near as possible to the w^ords they 
qualify. They are generally placed before adjectives, and 
often between the auxiliary and the principal verb ; as, 

"He was greatly mistaken." 
"John has never been in Rome." 



the twenty-seventh rule ? 221. "What is the twenty-eighth rule ? 
222. What is the twenty-ninth rule ? 223. What is tiie thirtieth rule 7 
224. What is the thirty -first rule ? 225. What is the thirty-second rule ? 



142 SYNTAX. 

225. Rule XXXIL Adverbs, when emphatica], may intro- 
duce a sentence, and be separated from the words they are 
intended to qualify ; as, 

*' Onward he went, regardless of danger." 

''Down, with a tremendous crash, fell the building." 

POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS. 

226. Rule XXXIII. The preposition is generally placed 
immediately before its object ; but it is also not unfrequently 
placed after it, and even at a considerable distance from 
it; as, 

''For all these actions you must account." 

*' All these actions you must speedily account /or, before a high tribu- 
nal." 

POSITION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

227. Rule XXXIV. The position of conjunctions varies, 
according as they connect sentences, or merely parts of 
sentences. 

Such conjunctions as, than, if, though, that, lest, unless, &c. which 

connect clauses, but never sentences, tike the first place in the 

clauses to which they refer ; as, 

*'He is older than I." 

" Though he came late, he was in season for the entertainment." 
Monosyllabic conjunctions, except then, are placed at the beginning of 

the second sentence ; as, 
'' He was undoubtedly an excellent scholar ; hut his acquaintance with 

the Oriental languages was not extensive." 
*' Your success will depend on your own exertions ; see, then, that 

you are diligent." 
Conjunctions of more than one syllable, with the exception of whereas, 

may be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or not, as the 

sound may seem to require ; as, 
** He was learned and honest. Moreover, he was well skilled in all 

lighter accomplishments. It is not surprising, therefore, that he 

should have received the appointment. His success, however, is by 

no means certain." 

226. What is the thirty-lhird rule ? 227. What is the thirty-fourtb 
rule ? 



EXERCISES. 143 



EXERCISES ON ARRANGEMENT. 

Distinguish which of the following Sentences are arranged Conventioiially^ 
and which Bhetorically , giving the rules. 

With many a snare abounds the path to bhss. 

The path to bhss abounds with many a snare. 

Rouse all your courage. Was he intelligent? 

Had he arrived in season, he would have heard the news. 

Comes he with the sword or with the ohve branch of peace ? 

Unnumbered are the blessings she bestows. 

Caesar conquered Britain. 

Plis enemies he won by clemency. 

Great conquerors purchase fame at a dear rate. 

Great was his sorrow, when he heard the news. 

Fallen art thou, O ! Son of the Morning. 

Bitterly did he mourn the loss of his friend. 

Correct the improper collocation of the words in Italics, in the following 
Conventional Sentences. 

Me he despises on account of my poverty. 

There rivers are in that country. 

The nation their king deposed without an error assigning, as a 

reason. 
If you me would oblige, desist from my friend calumniating. 
From me injuring, to insult he proceeded. 
Cool is the morning, me and George a walk would refresh. 
I and Wilham are classmates ; Henry and you occupy the same room. 
The town was invested by the army, which was surrounded by a lofty 

wall. 
The house was destroyed by fire which I occupied. 
The country was covered with verdure completely. 
You are ready to recite never. 
Your lesson is not enough long. 

Transpose the Prepositions in the followi7ig Sentences, in as many ways 
as the sense will admit. 

I am the man whom you inquired for. 
Of this conspiracy Caesar had no knowledge. 
From what country he came I never inquired. 
To him I of my hard fate complained. 

Such treatment I was not prepared for and it is treatment which 
I have never been accustomed to. 



144 SYNTAX. 

Point out, in the following Sentences, the co?ijunctions which connect sen- 
fences, and those which connect only 'parts of sentences; also the sen- 
fences and parts of senteiices which they respectively connect. 

He thought that he should arrive in season ; hut the rail-road cars ran 

off the track ; and the whole train was delayed two hours. He 

arrived, however, in the course of the night. 
If the cost were duly estimated beforehand, nations would seldom go 

to war. 
To become learned, you must be diligent ; use, therefore, all the means 

within your reach for acquiring knowledge ; for unless you are 

attentive to this matter now, in your youth, you will remain, to a 

certain degree, ilhterate all your lifetime. 
As you sow, so you will reap. 
I would reply, if I thought his arguments sufficiently strong to require 

refutation ; hut he appears to me to have refuted himself. 
Unless he will retire, I cannot remain in the room ; hut if he will go 

out, I will stay. 
Though he was eloquent and learned, yet he was not a ready debater. 

Plant of celestial seed, if dropp'd below, 

Say in what mortal soil thou deign' st to grow: 

Fair opening to some court's propitious shrine, 

Or deep with diamonds in the flaming mine? 

Twined with the wreath Parnassian laurels yield, 

Or reap'd in iron harvests of the field? 

Where grows ! where grows it not ? if vain our toil, 

We ought to blame the culture, not the soil. 

Convert, hy transposition, the following Rhetorical Sentences into Con- 
ventional Sentences. 

Great are their names ! Honoured and revered be their memory ! 
Associated with Washington and Franklin, their glory is a precious 
possession, enriching our annals, and exalting the character of our 
country. Greater is the bright example they have left us. More 
precious the lesson, furnished by their lives, for our instruction. 

From the charter of our independence, breathes a nobler counsel. To 
our republic belongs a happier province. Peace we would extend, 
but by persuasion and example, — 'the moral force by which alone it 
can prevail among the nations. Wars we may encounter, but it is 
in the sacred character of the injured and wronged. 



EXERCISES. 145 

High on the throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Inde, 
Or where the gorgeous East, v/ith richest hand, 
Showers, on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold, 
Satan exalted sat. 

Hence ! loathed Melancholy, 

Of Cerberus and blackest midnight born, 
In Stygian cave forlorn, 

'Mongst horrid shapes and shrieks, and sights unholy. 
Find out some uncouth cell, 

Where brooding darkness spreads his jealous wings. 
And the night raven sings ; 

There, under ebon shades and low-brow' d rocks, 
As ragged as thy locks. 

In dark Cimmerian desert ever dwell. 

To him who in the love of nature holds 

Communion with her visible forms, she speaks . ^ 

A various language; for his gayer hours ^ J 

She has a voice of gladness, and a smile 

And eloquence of beauty, and she glides 

Into his darker musings, with a mild 

And gentle sympathy, that steals away 

Their sharpness, ere he is aware. 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN BY THE PUPIL. 



I 



The Deer. 

Write conventional sentences illustrative of the twenty-first rule of 
arrangement. 
13 



148 



SYNTAX. 




Napoleon on St. Helena. 
Write rhetorical sentences illustrative of Rule XXII. 

MODEL. 
Fallen is the mighty conqueror. Great was his success ; but terrible 
were the calamities which he brought upon the hations: brilliant 
were his victories ; but not less signal and complete were the re- 
verses which terminated his career. Sad and gloomy must have 
been the thoughts which passed through his mind, as from his rocky 
prison he surveyed the wide and restless ocean — fit emblem of his 
boundless ambition, and of the turbulent times which made and 
marred his splendid fortunes. 




Q,ueen Victoria. 
Write rhetorical sentences illustrative of Rule XXII. 




^=^rh ;,n „> „' _^^:=^-^ 



The Pursuit, 
Write conventional sentences illustrative of Rule XXIII 



EXERCISES. 



147 




Herald forbidding a Duel. 
Write rhetorical sentences illustrative of Rule XXIV. 




A Fright. 

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXV. 







The Highlander. 

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXVI. 



148 



SYNTAX. 




A Conversation. 

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXVII. 




Sport in the Garden. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXVIII. 




The unstrung Bow. 

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXIX. 



EXERCISES. 



149 




Dinner Time. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXX. 




Fishing with Spears. 

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXXL 




The Ocelot. 

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXXIL 
13* 



150 



SYNTAX. 




The Baboon. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXXIIL 




The Lynx. 
Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXXIV. 



EXERCISES IN SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 



** Those men, who destroy a healthful constitution of body by intern^ 
perance, and an irregular life, do as manifestly kill themselves, as 
those who hang, or poison, or drown themselves/* 

3Iode of parsing the above sentence, - 
Those is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, of the plural number^ 

agreeing v/ith the noun men. — Rule VII. {Recite the rule.J 
Men is a common noun, of the third person plural, and nominativ© 

case to the verb do kill. — Rule L 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 151 

Who is a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent, men. — 
Rule V. It is of the third person plural, and nominative case to the 
verb DESTROY. — Remark under Rule I. 

Destroy is a regular active verb, of the indicative mood, present tense, 
third person plural, agreeing with its nominative who. — Rule I. 

A, is an indefinite article, prefixed to the noun constitution. — Rule 
VIII. 

Healthful is an adjective qualifying the noun constitution. — 
Rule XXV. 

Constitution is a common noun, of the third person singular, and 
object of the verb destroy. — Rule II. 

Of is a preposition. 

Body is a noun of the third person singular, and object of the preposi- 
tion OF. — Rule XVI. 

By is a preposition. 

Intemperance is a common noun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, and object of the preposition by. — Rule XVI. 

And is a conjunction connecting the nouns intemperance and life. 
— Rule XVII. 

An is an indefinite article, prefixed to the noun life. — Rule VIII. 

Irregular is an adjective qualifying the noun life. — Rule XXV. 

Life is a common noun of the third person, singular number, and 
object of the preposition by. — Rule XVI. 

Do EiLL is a regular active verb, of the indicative mood, present tense, 
emphatic form, third person plural, agreeing vnth its nominative 
MEN. — Rule I. 

As is a conjunction, connecting its own clause of the sentence with the 
clause which follows. — Rule XXXIV. 

Manifestly is an adverb, qualifying the verb do kill. — Rule XXXI. 

Themselves is a pronoun, compounded of them and the reciprocal 
pronoun selves/^ It is of the third person, plural number, object of 
the verb do kill. — Rule II. 

As is a conjunction, connecting its own clause of the sentence with 
the clause which precedes it.. 

Those is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, of the plural number, 
agreeing with men, understood. — Rule VII. 

Who is a relative, agreeing with its antecedent men, understood. — 
Rule V. It is of the third person plural, and nominative case to 
the verb hang. — Remark under Rule I. 

Hang is an irregular active verb, of the indicative mood, present tense, 
third person plural, agreeing with who. — Rule I. 

Or is a conjunction, connecting its own clause with that which pre- 
cedes it. 

* See Section 119, p. 57. 



152 SYNTAX. 

Poison is a regular active verb, of the indicative mood, present teiise, 

third person plural, agreeing with who, understood. — Rule I. 
Or. {Parsed as above.) 

Brown. (Parsed in the same manner as poison.) 
Themselves. (Parsed as above, except that it is the object of drown.) 

Parse the following sentences, giving the Rules of Syntax. 

** We find but few historians of all ages, who have been diligent 
enough in their search for truth ; it is their common method to take 
on trust what they distribute to the public, by which means, a false- 
hood once received from a famed writer becomes traditional to pos- 
terity." 

*'The punishment of criminals should be of use: when a man is 
hanged, he is good for nothing." 

" The moraUty of an action depends upon the motive from which we 
act. If I fling half-a-crown to a beggar with intention to break his 
head, and he picks it up and buys victuals with it, the physical effect 
is good ; but with respect to me, the action is very wrong." " 

** How difficult a thing it is to persuade a man to reason against his 
own interest, though he is convinced that equity is against him !" 

** The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think than 
what to think — rather to improve our minds, so as to enable us to 
think for ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of 
other men." 

** No entertainment is so cheap as reading, nor any pleasure so lasting." 

** Read not to contradict and confute, but to weigh and consider. 
Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few 
to be digested ; that is, some books are to be read only in parts ; 
others to be read, but not curiously ; and some few to be read wholly 
and with diligence and attention. Reading maketh a full man, con- 
ference a ready man, and writing an exact man." 

** To do an ill action is base ; to do a good one, which involves you 
in no danger, is nothing more than common ; but it is the property 
of a truly good man, to do great and good things, though he risk 
every thing by it.". 

A State. 

What constitutes a state ? 
Not high-rais'd battlements, or labour'd mound, 

Thick wall, or moated gate; 
Not cities proud, with spires and turrets crownM, 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 153 

Nor bays and broad-arm' d ports, 
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride; 

Nor Starr' d and spangled courts, 
Where low-brow' d baseness wafts perfume to pride.— 

No! — men, high-minded men, *■ 

With powers as far above dull brutes endued, 

In forest, brake, or den. 
As beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude; 

Men, who their duties know, 
But know their riglits; and, knowing, dare maintain, 

Prevent the long-aimed blow. 
And crush the tyrant, while they rend the chain, — 

These constitute a state; 
And sovereign law, that state's collected will, 

High over thrones, and globes elate, 
Sits empress, crowning good, repressing ill. 

Smit by her sacred frown. 
The fiend discretion, like a vapour sinks ; 

And e'en the all-dazzling crown 
Hides his faint rays, and at her bidding shrinks. 

Such was this heaven-lov'd isle. 
Than Lesbos fairer, and the Cretan shore ! — 

No more shall Freedom smile ? 
Shall Britons languish, and be men no more ? 

Since all must life resign, 
Those sweet rewards which animate the brave, 

'Tis folly to decline. 
And steal inglorious to the silent grave. 

Sir William Jones. 

Love of Fame, 

The love of praise, howe'er concealed by art. 
Reigns more or less, and glows in every heart : 
The proud to gain it toils on toils endure, 
The modest shun it, but to make it sure ; 
O'er globes and sceptres, now on thrones it swells, 
Now trims the midnight lamp in college cells. 
'Tis Tory, Whig ; it plots, prays, preaches, pleads. 
Harangues in senates, speaks in masquerades. 
It aids the dancer's heel, the writer's head, 
And heaps the plain with mountains of the dead ; 
Nor ends with life ; but nods in sable plumes. 
Adorns our hearse, and flatters on our tombs. 

Young. 



154 SYNTAX. 



PUNCTUATION. 

1. In speaking or reading a sentence, various pauses are 
made, for the purpose of making the construction and mean- 
ing more distinct to the hearer. 

2. Punctuation is the marking of these pauses, by points, 
indicative of their length. 

3. The principal points are the Comma ( , ), the Semicolon 
( ; ), the Colon ( : ), and the Period ( . ). 

4. The Comma represents the shortest pause, and is often 
used to mark the construction where very little interruption 
of voice is allowable. 

5. The Semicolon marks a longer pause than a comma, 
and separates clauses less closely connected. 

6. The Colon marks a longer pause than the semicolon, 
and indicates a still looser connexion between the clauses 
which it separates. 

7. The Period, or full point, is used at the end of a sen- 
tence, to indicate that it is completed. 

COMMA. 

8. Rule I. When a simple sentence is long, the subject 
and predicate each consisting of a number of words, a 
comma is placed between them ; as, 

'* To be constantly apprehensive of unknown dangers, is a mark of a 
weak mind." 

9. Rule II. When two or more words, whether nouns, ad- 
jectives, pronouns, verbs, or adverbs, are connected without 
the connecting word being expressed, the comma supplies 
the place of that word ; as, 

" Honour, duty, affection and interest required the act." 
"He was honourable , dutiful, affectionate and wise.^^ 

1. Why are pauses used ? 2. What is punctuation ? 3. What are 
t\e principal points used in writing ? 4. Describe the Comma. — 
5. The Semicolon. — 6. The Colon. — 7. The Period. 8. What is the 
first rule for the use of the comma ? — Give examples. 9. What is 
the second rule for the use of the comma ? — Give examples. 10. 



PUNCTUATION. 155 

**We should honour, reverence, love and defend our parents." 
'* Give it to him, her or me." 

*' You should conduct yourself honourably, dutifully, affectionately 
and discreetly in this matter." 

10. Rule III. Absolute, relative, and, in general, all paren- 
thetical clauses, are separated from the other parts of a sen- 
tence by commas ; as, 

*' The clock having struck ten, the meeting was adjourned." 
*'The man, whom you met at the party, is a Frenchman." 
*' We were always successful, because we were careful^ 
** The war, even at the close, was not universally popular." 
*'He returns, / think, under very favourable auspices." 

11. Rule IV. The modifying words and phrases, nay, 
however, hence, besides, finally, in short, at least, and the 
like, are usually separated by commas ; as, 

** The Romans understood Hberty as well, at least, as we." 

12. Rule V. Words denoting the person or object ad- 
dressed are separated by commas ; as, 

"I write, my friend, in great distress of mind." 
" Thy daughters, Columbia, are fair." 

13. Rule VI. A word or phrase emphatically repeated is 
separated by commas : as, 

" The people, the people, if we are true to them, will carry us, and 
will carry themselves, gloriously, through this struggle." 

14. Rule VII. The words of another writer cited, but not 
formally introduced as a quotation, are separated by com- 
mas; as, 

** Lord Bacon tells us that. He that hath wife and children, hath given 
hostages to fortune.''^ 

15. Rule VIII. Words and clauses, though closely con- 
nected in construction, are often separated by a comma, 
when contrast or opposition is expressed ; as, 

"He came full of hope, and returned disappointed." 

. i 

What is the third rule for the use of the comma ? — Give examples. 
11. What is the fourth rule ? — Give examples. 12. What is the fifth 
rule? — Give examples. 13. What is the sixth rule? — Give exam- 
ples. 14. What is the seventh rule? — Give examples. 15. What is 



156 SYNTAX. 

16. Rule IX. When the absence of a word is indicated in 
reading or speaking by a pause, its place may be supplied 
by a comma ; as, 

*' Want creates discontent; discontent, sedition; sedition, anarchy 
and anarchy, despotism." 

SEMICOLON. 



1 

I 



17. Rule I. When a sentence consists of two parts, the one 
containing a complete proposition, and the other added as 
an inference, or to give some reason or explanation, the two 
parts are separated by a semicolon ; as, 

** I cannot assent to the doctrine ; for it is equally repugnant to religion 
and common sense." 

18. Rule II. When a sentence consists of several members, 
each constituting a distinct proposition, and having a de- 
pendence upon each other or upon some common clause, 
they are separated by semicolons ; as, 

*' He came immediately to the camp ; inquired into the cause of the 
meeting ; brought the ringleaders to trial ; and did not abandon the 
affair, till they were all convicted and shot." 

COLON. 

19. Rule I. When a sentence consists of two parts, the 
one so complete in itself as to admit a full point, and the other 
containing an additional remark, depending upon the former 
in sense, though not in syntax, the connection of the re- 
mark with the preceding proposition is indicated by a 
colon ; as, 

'* Painting is a noble art : it should be encouraged as a means of na- 
tional glory." 

20. Rule II. When a sentence, which consists of an enu- 
meration of particulars, each separated from the other by a 

the eighth rule ? — Give examples. 16. What is the ninth rule for the 
use of the comma? — Give examples. 17. What is the first rule for 
the use of the Semicolon ? — Give an example. 18. The second rule ? 
— Give an example. 19. What is the first rule for the use of the 
Colon ? — Give an example. 20. The second rule ? — Give an exam- 



PUNCTUATION. 157 

semicolon, has its sense suspended till the last, that clause 
is disjoined from the preceding by a colon ; as, 

"If he has not been unfaithful to his king; if he has not proved a 
traitor to his country ; if he has never given cause for such charges 
as have been preferred against him : why then is he afraid to con- 
front his accusers?" 

The colon is rarely used in composition. It may, for the most part, bo 
dispensed with, without any great inconvenience. 



PERIOD. 

21. Besides being used to mark the completion of a sen- 
tence, the period is placed after initials, when used alone, as, 
D. D. for Doctor of Divinity ; and after abbreviations, as, 
Lat., for Latin. 

22. The other marks most commonly used are the Dash 
( — ), the point of Interrogation ( ] ), the point of Exclama- 
tion ( ! ), and the Parenthesis ( ). 

23. The Dash marks a break in the sentence, or an ab- 
rupt turn ; as, 

*' Great distresses are silent — penury depresses the spirits as it ema- 
ciates the body." 

24. The point of Interrogation is put after a sentence 
which asks a question ; as, 

**Is it fancy, or is it fact?" 

25. The point of Exclamation is used after sudden ex- 
pressions of emotion ; as, 

** Behold! I bring you glad tidings!" 

26. The Parenthesis is sometimes used to enclose a remark 
or clause not essential to the sentence in construction, but 
useful in explaining it, or introducing an important idea; as, 

*' Let us, then (for we can no longer conceal the necessity of such a 
proceeding), enter at once upon a full investigation." 

pie. 21. What are the uses of the period ? 22. What are the other 
points and stops ? — Explain their uses 
14 



158 SYNTAX. 



EXERCISES ON PUNCTUATION. 

Correct the Errors, and supply the Defects, in the following Sentences: 

COMMA. 

Politics, is the application of morals to social institutions. 

The peculiar character of the doctrine of Confucius is that all, the 

duties of man are presented as various forms of domestic duties. 
Plato ; Epicurus ; and Aristotle ; were great, Grecian philosophers. 
Irenseus Tertullian Origen and Clement ; of Alexandria were fathers 
of the Church. 
Time, and money, industry, and talent : were thrown away, in this 

useless pursuit. 
He rose ; like the sun ; when he is shrouded in vapours, but he soon 

burst forth in meridian splendour. 

SEMICO L ON. 

He often comes ; to see me, but he seldom tarries long. 

Parrots like all other hooked-clawed birds walk awkwardly, they 

make use of their bill as a third foot climbing and descending ; with 

a ridiculous caution. 
Owls move in a buoyant manner ; as if lighter than the air, they seem 

to want ballast. 
Most small birds hop, but wagtails and larks walk ; moving their legs 

alternately. 
Skylarks rise and fall ; perpendicularly ; as they sing, wood-larks 

hang poised in the air, and tit-larks rise and fall ; in large curves ; 

singing in their descent. 

COLON. 

He who possesses a treasure does not care to show it to all the world, 

he preserves it to use in time of need, you would do the same if you 

were a true sage. 
Correct this fault, purge yourself from all desire of pleasure, this will 

make you much more useful than all you are trying to learn about 

the ancients. 

Point the following Sentences: 
We scarce believe a thing when we are told it which we actually see 
before our eyes every day without being the least surprised. 

I suppose that there are in Great Britain upwards of a hundred thou- 



EXERCISES ON PUNCTUATION. 159 

sand people employed in lead tin iron copper and coal mines these 
unhappy wretches scarce ever see the light of the sun they are buried 

, in the bowels of the earth there they work at a severe and dismal 
task without the least prospect of being delivered from it they sub- 
sist on the coarsest and worst sort of fare they have their health 
miserably impaired and their lives cut short by being perpetually 
confined in the close vapour of these malignant minerals. A hun- 
dred thousand more at least are tortured without remission by the 
suffocating smoke intense fires and constant drudgery necessary in 
refining and managing the products of these mines. 

If any man informed us that two hundred thousand innocent persons 
were confined to so intolerable a slavery how should we pity the 
unhappy sufierers and how great would be our just indignation 
against those that inflicted so cruel and ignominious a punishment. 

This is an instance I could not wish a stronger of the numberless 
things which we pass by in their common dress yet which shock us 
when they are nakedly represented. 

But this number considerable as it is and the slavery with all its base- 
ness and horror which we have at home is nothing to what the 
rest of the world aflfords of the same nature. 

Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign 
masters Pain and Pleasure It is for them alone to point out what we 
ought to do as well as to determine what we shall do On the one 
hand the standard of right and wrong on the other the chain of 
causes and effects are fastened to their throne They govern us in all 
we do in all we say in all we think every effort we can make to 
throw off our subjection will serve but to demonstrate and to con- 
firm it In words a man may pretend to abjure their empire but in 
reality he vidll remain subject to it all the while The principle of 
utility recognises this subjection and assumes it for the foundation of 
that system the object of which is to rear the fabric of felicity by the 
hands of reason and of law Systems which attempt to question it 
deal in sounds instead of sense in caprice instead of reason in dark- 
ness instead of light The happiness of the individuals of whom a 
community is composed that is their pleasures and their security is 
the end which the legislator ought to have in view the sole standard 
in conformity to which each individual ought as far as depends upon 
the legislator to be made to fashion his behaviour But whether 
it be this or any thing else that is to be done there is nothing by 
which a man can ultimately be made to do it but either pain or 
pleasure Plautus turned a mill Terence was a slave Boethius died 
in a jail Paul Borghese had fifteen different trades and starved with 
them all. 



160 PROSODY. 

PART IV. 
PROSODY. 

1. Prosody* is that part of grammar which treats of the 
structure of Poetical Composition. 

2. Poetry differs in structure from prose chiefly in re- 
quiring a more measured arrangement of words, and in 
admitting greater license in the application of them. 

3. The measured arrangement which distinguishes poetry 
from prose is called Versification. 

4. The application of words, peculiar to poetry, is called 
Poetical License, 

VERSIFICATION. 

5. The harmony of Verse depends upon the regular recur- 
rence, at fixed intervals, of syllables of a certain quantity. 

6. Syllables are either long or short, accented or unaccented, 

7. A syllable is long or short according to the time occu- 
pied in pronouncing it ; as, tiibe, tiib. 

8. A syllable is accented or unaccented according as stress 
of the voice is placed upon it in pronunciation ; as, dete'r, 
i'njury. 

9. The harmony of English verse depends chiefly upon 
the return at regular intervals of accented, and not of long 
syllables. 

" Of ma'n's first di^sobe'dience a'nd the fru'it 
Of tha't forbi'dden tre'e, whose mo'rtal tas'te 
Brought de^ath into' the wor''ld and a'll our wo'.'' 

10. It is only necessary to repeat any verse in English to per- 

* Prosody strictly denotes only that musical tone or melody which 
accompanies speech. But the usage of modern grammarians justifies 
an extremely general application of the term. 

1. What is Prosody? 2. How does poetry differ from prose? 3. 
What is Versification ? 4. What is poetical license ? 5. Upon what 
does the harmony of verse depend ? 6. What is said of syllables ? 7. 
Are syllables always long or short ? 8. Are they always accented ? 
9. Upon what does the harmony of English verse depend ? — 10. How 



PROSODY. 161 

ceive, that without the alternate percussion of accented and 
unaccented syllables it would not be harmonious. Thus : — 

11. Some instances occur of harmony produced by the 
quantity alone, apart from accent ; as, 

^^FomUams, and ye that warble as ycjlaw.''^ 
"For Eloquence the soul; Song charms the tease." 

12. But such instances are few : the accent, in the vast 
majority of cases, determines the pronunciation, and conse- 
quently, the harmony of the line, without regard to the 
natural length of the syllables. Thus :— 

" HurVd he^d^dlong fla'mm^ from tit etheVet^i sky'." 

1-3. A Verse is a measured line consisting of a certain num- 
ber of regular returns of accented and unaccented syllables. 

14. The number of accents in a verse determines the 
number of feet. 

15. A foot consists generally of two, and sometimes of 
three syllables, one of which is always accented. 

\Q. It is called foot, because it is by the aid of the accent 
which marks its principal syllable that we step along through 
the verse in a measured pace. 

17. The principal feet are the Iambus, the T^'ochee, and 
the AnapcBst. 

18. An Iambus is a dissyllabic foot, having the accented 
syllable last ; as, ado' re, 

19. A Trochee is a dissyllabic foot, having the accented 
syllable first ; as, no'ble, 

20. An Anapaest consists of three syllables, the two first 
unaccented, and the last accented ; as, inter ce'de, 

21. Rhyme is the name by which we distinguish verses 
that are closed by final syllables of a similar sound ; as, 

**Hope, for a season, bade the world faretueZZ, 
And Freedom shriek' d — as Kosciusko /eZZ.'" 

is its harmony perceived? — Give an example. 11. Is harmony some- 
times produced by quantity alone ? — Give an example, 12. What does 
the accent determine ? 13. What is a verse ? 14. What does the number 
of accents determine? 15. What is afoot ? 16. Why is it called foot? 
17. What are the principal feet? 18. What is an Iambus? — 19. A 
Trochee ? — 20. An Anapaest ? 21. What is rhyme ? — Give examples. 
14^ 




162 PROSODY. 

"A king sat on the rocky brow 

Which looks o'er sea-born SalamiV/ 
And ships by thousands lay helow, 

And men in nations: — all were his! 
He counted them at break of day — 
And when the sun set — where were they ?" 

22. Verses which have not this similarity of sound in their 
final syllables are called Blank Verse ; as, 

*' How still the morning of the hallow' d day ! 
Mute is the voice of rural labour, hush'd 
The ploughboy's whistle, and the milkmaid's song ; 
The scythe lies glittering in the dewy wreath 
Of tedded grass, mingled with fading flowers 
That yestermorn bloom'd waving in the breeze." 

23. Verses are distinguished by various names, according 
to the feet that prevail in them ; as. Iambic, Trochaic, Ana- 
jpcBstic, 

24. The two most common kinds of verse are the Iambic 
and Trochaic. 

25. Iambic verse has the weak percussion first, and the 
loud last. 

26. Trochaic verse has the loud first, and the weak last. 

• IAMBIC VERSEe 

27. (1.) The most common and also the most dignified 
verse in English poetry consists of five Iambic feet, or ten 
syllables ; as, 

** Depa^rt- | ed spi'r- | its o'f | the mig'h- ] ty de'ad ! 
Ye who*" 1 at Ma'r- | atho'n | and Leu'c- | tra ble'd !" 

*'Perha'ps | in thi's ] neglec't- ] ed spo't | is la'id | 
Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire ; 
Hands, that the rod of empire might have sway'd, 
Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre." 

*' How sw'eet | the moo'n- | light slee'ps | upon' | this ba'nk ! | 
Here will we sit, and let the sounds of music 
Creep in our ears ; soft stillness and the night 
Become the touches of sweet harmony !" 

22. What is Blank Verse? — Give an example. 23. How are verses 
distinguished ? 24. Name the most common kinds. 25. Describe the 
Iambic verse. — 26. The Trochaic. 27. Give examples of Iambic verse 



PROSODY. 163 

28. This measure, commonly called the Heroic, has a 
grave and majestic march, well suited to heroic argument, 
especially if it be not fettered with rhyme. 

29. It admits of some freedom for the purpose of giving it 
variety, especially in the beginning and end of the line. The 
first foot is often a Trochee instead of an Iambus ; and the 
last has often a short unaccented syllable appended to the 
Iambus. Thus : — 

^* Dafughter \ of God and man, accomplished Eve." | 
** Fle'asures \ the sex, as children birds pursue.'* 
***Tis Heaven itself that points out an here'af- J fer." | 

30. Sometimes even greater irregularities are admissi- 
ble ; as, 

*' Burnt after him to the bottomless pit.'' 

31. A verse of six feet or twelve syllables, called an 
Alexandrine line, is occasionally introduced into heroic 
verse, especially at the close of a passage ; as, 

*' Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow-— 
Such as I Crea- j tion's dawn j beheld, | thou roll- [est now." | 

32. (2.) A shorter Iambic verse is made from the former, 
by cutting off one Iambus, or two syllables ; as, 

** Thou, Ste'll- I a, wa'st ] no lon'g- | er yo'ung, | 
When fir'st | for the'e | my ly're ] I strung." | 

" Thou ar't,| O Go'd, | the li'fe | and li'ght | 
Of a'U ] this wo'nd- | rous wo'rld | we se'e.: | 
Its glow by day, its smile by night, 
Are but reflections caught from thee!" 

33. This measure is sometimes varied, to adapt it to light 
subjects, by the addition of two syllables, forming a double 
rhyme; as, 

*' His braw'n- [ y ba'ck [ and sid'es | Hercu'l- j can 
Support the star and string cerulean/^ 

of five feet. — 28. What is it commonly called ? — 29. How is it varied ? 
— 30. What are oflen admissible? 31. What is a verse of six feet 
called. — Give an example. 32. What is said of a shorter verse ? — - 
Give examples. 33. How is a double rhyme formed ? — Give examples. 



164 PROSODY. 

34. (3.) Iambic verse is sometimes further shortened into 
six syllables, by cutting off another foot ; as, 

" Though tho'u I the wa't- | ers wa'rp | 
Thy sti'ng | is no't | so sha'rp." | 

"In pla'c- j es fa'r | or ne'ar, | 
Or fa'm- j ous o'r | obscu're, | 
Where wholesome is the air, 
Or where the most impure." 

35. The four-lined stanza of Psalmody generally consists 
of alternate Iambic verses of four and three feet ; as, 

*' Lord, tho'u | did'st love | Jeru's- | ale'm, | 
Once she' | was a'll | thine ow'n : I 
Her love thy fairest heritage, 
Pier power thy glory's throne." 

36. A residuary syllable or half foot is often added to an 
Iambic line, for the sake of variety ; as, 

*^ And coun't- | less kin'gs | have i'n- | to du'st | been hu'mb- | led. 
While no't j a fr'ag- | ment o'f | thy fle'sh | has cr'um6- | led T^ 

*' Waft, wa'ft I ye wind's | his sto'- | ry, 
And on' | ye wa' | ters ro'll, | 
Till, li'ke | a se'a | of glo'- | ry, 
It sprea'ds | from po'le | to po'le !" | 



TROCHAIC VERSE. 

37. Trochaic verse is also of various lengths. 

1. It sometimes contains six feet or twelve syllables; as, 

*' O'n a I m'ountain | stretch'ed | be | ne'ath a | h'oary | w'illow, | 
Lay a shepherd swain and view'd the rolling billow." 

2. It sometimes contains j^ve feet or ten syllables ; aSj 

*' A'll that I wa'lk on | fo'ot or | ri'de in | ch'ariots; | 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets." 

3. It sometimes contains four feet or eight syllables ; as, 

*' On' they | ma'rch though | to' self- | sl'aughter, | 
Regular as roUing water." 



34. How is Iambic verse still further shortened ? — Give examples. 
37. Give examples of Trochaic verse of six feet. — Of five feet. — Of four 



PROSODY. 165 

4. It sometimes contains three feet or six syllables ; as, 

** Or' where | He'brus | w'anders, | 
Rolling in meanders." 

5. The Trochaic line most generally employed contains 
tree feet, and an additional syllable ; as, 

** Ro'me be | cr'ush'd to | o'ne wide [ tomh, 
B'ut be I st'ill the | Ro'man's \ Rome:' 

*' Li'ke le- | vi'a- | tha'ns a- | iloat 

La'y their | b'ulwarks | o'n the j hrme; 
While the sign of battle flew 
On the lofty British line." 

ANAP^STIC VERSE. 

38. In Anapsestic verse, the interval between the accented 
syllables is doubled, and the percussion falls on every third 
syllable. 

39. Anapa3stic verse is, in common with Iambic and Tro- 
chaic, of various lengths. 

1. It sometimes consists of four feet or twelve sylla- 
bles; as, 

** From the kna'ves, | and the fo'ols, | and the fo'ps | of the ti'me ; \ 
From the drudges in prose, and the triflers in rhyn^.e." 

*' And the w'id- | ows of A'- | shur are lou'd | in their wail, | 
And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal." 

2. It sometimes consists of three feet or nine syllables; as, 

" Who are the'y | that now bi'd j us be slave's? | 
They are fo'es \ to the go'od ) and the fre'e." 

3. It sometimes consists of two feet or six syllables ; as, 

*' But his cou'r- | age 'gan fai'l, [ 
For no a'rts | could avai'l." 

40. Anapaestic verse admits of variety, as well as the Iam- 
bic and Trochaic, by taking an additional syllable at the end, 
and sometimes a dissyllabic foot at the beginning of the 
line ; as, 

*' On the war'm | cheek of you'th | smiles and r'o- | ses are ble'nd- | 
ing." I 

feet — Of three feet. — Of three feet and one syllable. — 38. Describe 
Anapaestic verse. — Give examples of the different varieties of feet. 



166 PROSODY. 

-*' But his cou'r- [ age 'gan fa'il | liim, \ 
For no a'rts j could ava'il | Am." | 

''If e'er \ in thy sigh't | I found fa'v- | our, Ap'ol- | Zo, ] 
Befe'nd \ me from al'l | the dis'as- | ters that fo'l- | low" 

41. Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic feet all admit of oc- 
casional intermixture ; and many beautiful passages in our 
poets cannot be scanned without the use of all of them. 

The following are examples : — 

" Rests secu're | the ri'gh- | teous ma'n: | 
At h'is ] Redee'm- | er's be'ck, | 
Sure t' em'erge | and ri'se | agai'n, | . 
And mo'unt | abo've | the wre'ck." 

*' And the're | lay the ri'd I er distor't | ed" and pal'e, | 
With the de'w | on his bro'w | and the ru'st | on his ma'il." | 

"■ Awa'ke | 'tis the te'r | ror of war', | 
The cr'es | cent is tos's'd | on the wi'nd." | 

POETICAL LICENSE. 

42. The language of poetry admits of several peculiarities 
in its grammatical structure, in order to fit it the better for 
being formed into regular numbers. 

1. Poetry admits of the use of words and phrases which 
in prose would be accounted obsolete. 

Such phrases give to poetical composition that rust of antiquity, which 
is a great beauty, if not carried so far as to make the diction uncouth 
and obscure. 

2. Poetry admits of a bolder transposition of words than 
prose : the rhetorical arrangement being as much the usual 
order in the former as the conventional is in the latter. 

3. Some words are lengthened by a syllable, and others 
abbreviated, to adapt them to the purposes of measured com- 
position. Thus, for part, the poets often use dispart ; for 
chain, enchain ; for morning, morn ; for valley, vale, 

4. Poetry admits of a liberal use of nouns for adjectives ; 
as, 

"Amid the greenwood shade this boy was bred." 

42. What is Poetical License ? Give instances with respect to obsolete 
words. — What is said as regards transposition? — What is said about 
lengthening and shortening words? — Using nouns for adjectives? — 



PROSODY. 167 

5. In the use of conjunctions in pairs, nor is often substi- 
tuted for neither, and or for either ; as, 

*' To them nor stores nor granaries belong, 
Nought but the woodland and the pleasing song." 

** Remote, unfriended, melancholy, slow, 
Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po." 

6. Poetry admits of great variety of elliptical expressions, 
and even allows the omission, in certain cases, of important 
parts of speech. Thus, two words are contracted into 
one ; as, ' Twas, for It was ; ' Tis, for It is ; ' Twill, for It 
will; We'll, for We ivill. 

43. Vowels and sometimes consonants are elided to run 
two syllables into one: as, 

** T' alarm <A' eternal midnight of the grave.'* 
" What e'er she hides beneath her verdant floor." 
" The hunter-steed exulting o'er the dale." 
** Till, at advantage ta'en, his brand 
Forced Ro<Z' rick's weapon from his hand." 

44. Nouns are often omitted in interrogative sentences ; as, 

^' Lives there who loves his pain?" that is, "Lives there a man.'\ 

45. Verbs are often omitted, especially such as express 
address or answer; as, 

** To whom the monarch ;" that is, "To whom the monarch said or 
replied.^ ^ 

46. Prepositions are often omitted; as, 

** He mourn'd no recreant friend, no mistress coy;" that is, "He 
mourned for no recreant friend," &c. 



EXERCISES ON PROSODY. 

Scan the following verses : — 
The fiery courser, when he hears from far 
The sprightly trumpets and the shouts of war, 
Pricks up his ears, and, trembling with delight, 
Shifts place, and paws, and hopes the promised fight. 

What is said respecting conjunctions ? — Respecting Ellipses. 43. 
What is said of vowels and consonants ? — 44. Of nouns ? — 45. Of 
verbs ? — 46. Of prepositions ? 



168 PROSODY. 

Should fate command me to the farthest verge 
Of the green earth, to distant barbarous cHmes, 
Rivers unknown to song ; where first the sun 
Gilds Indian mountains, or his setting beam 
Flames on the Atlantic isles; — 'tis nought to me, 
Since God is ever present — ever felt. 
In the void waste as in the city full ; 
And, where He vital breathes, there must be joy. 

No longer Autumn's glowing red 
Upon our forest hills is shed ; 
No more beneath the evening beam 
Fair Tweed reflects their purple gleam ; 
Away hath pass'd the heather-bell 
That bloom' d so rich on Needpath-fell ; 
Sallow his brow, and russet bare 
Are now the sister heights of Yare. 

Our native land — our native vale — 

A long — a last adieu ! 
Farewell to bonny Teviotdale, 

And Cheviot's mountains blue. 
The battle-mound — the Border tower, 

That Scotia's annals tell — 
The martyr's grave — the lover's bower, 

To each — to all — farewell! 

Last came Joy's ecstatic trial: 

He with ivy crown advancing, 

First to the lively pipe his hand address'd ; 

But soon he saw the brisk awakening viol, 

Whose sweet entrancing voice he loved the best. 

They would have thought, who heard the strain, 

They saw in Tempe's vale her native maids, 

Amidst the festal sounding shades, 

To some unwearied minstrel dancing; 

While as his flying fingers kiss'd the strings, 

Love framed with Mirth a gay fantastic round ; 

Loose were her tresses seen, her zone unbound. 

And he, amidst his frolic play, 

As if he would the charming air repay. 

Shook thousand odours from his dewy wings. 



APPENDIX. 



DERIVATION. 

Derivation is that part of Etymology which treats of the 
Origin and Primary Signification of words. 

The words of a cultivated language, however numerous and apparently- 
unconnected, are found on examination to be reducible to groups or 
families, and to be related to each other by identity of origin and 
similarity of signification. 

Thus, the words, justly, justice, justify, justijication, justiciary, ad- 
just, re-adjust, unjust, injustice, &c. are all kindred words, con- 
nected with their common parent, just. In like manner, terrace, 
terraqueous, terrene, terrestrial, terrier, territory, inter, interment, 
disinter, Mediterraiiean, subterranean, &.c. are all connected with 
their parent, terra, the earth. 

Words are either Primitive or Derivative, 

A Primitive word is not derived from any simpler word 
in the language ; as, man., just. 

A Derivative word is formed from some word of greater 
simplicity ; as, manhood, unjust. 

The primitive words of a language are always few com- 
pared with the whole amount of its vocabulary. 

The primitives of the Greek, — one of the most various and copious 
of languages, — do not, according to Dr. Adam Smith, exceed three 
hundred : and Lord Monboddo even goes so far as to maintain that 
its whole vocabulary is derived from five duads, or combinations of 
two letters. 

A language is considered perfect in respect of etymological structure 
when its primitives are very few in comparison of its derivatives, and 
when it has not only all the latter but also all the former witliin 
itself, and of its own growth. 

Derivation seems to be an artifice of language to keep the 
number of words within proper bounds. 

When the enlargement of his knowledge requires the use of a new 
word, it is natural for man, instead of inventing at once a sound alto- 
gether arbitrary, to graft a derivative, significant of the thing he 
15 (169) 



170 APPENDIX. 

wishes to express, on some well-known stock : and the principle on 
which he proceeds in selecting the stock and forming the derivative, 
is, to express things which are connected together by words which 
have also a connexion with one another. 
The effect of this modification of old words in preventing the multiph- 
cation of new ones is well illustrated by the derivatives which are 
employed to express number. We give names to particular num- 
bers to the extent of ten, and then we turn back and reckon ten and 
one, ten and two, ten and three, &c. giving names to the new num- 
bers compounded of the names of the old. Thus,* thirteeen (three- 
ten), /owr^ee^a (four-ten), fifteen (five-ten), &c. In this way we go 
on till we come to twice ten, which is expressed by a word (twenty) 
analagous to the names of two and ten. In like manner we count 
three tens {thirty), four tens (forty), &,c., till we come to tentenSf 
which is expressed by a new word (hundred). Then the reckoning 
proceeds till it come to ten hundred, which is expressed by another 
new word (thousand) : and so on, till we come to ten hundred thou- 
sand, which requires the invention of another new word (million). 
Thus, by the help of derivation and composition, we are enabled to 
express by a few new words all possible numbers, — which, without 
such help, would alone have required a language to express them. 



ORIGIN OF WORDS. 

I. ORIGIN OF ENGLISH ROOTS. 

The English language derives its roots from various lan- 
guages. 

The basis of the language is the Saxon, which was spoken in England 
during the time of the Anglo-Saxons. But the original stock, be- 
sides being greatly modified by use, has received large and constant 
additions from other languages. The Danish and Norman invasions 
successively introduced a few Danish and Norman-French words. 
Subsequently, a great number of Latin and Greek words obtained 
currency, as also some French, Italian, and Spanish words. And, 
more recently, many scientific terms, especially the names of natu- 
ral productions, have been adopted from the German ; as well as 
many names of new commodities of commerce borrowed from the 
countries whence they have been imported. The great majority of 
our words, however, are still either of Saxon or of Latin origin. 

* Eleven and twelve are not cited as examples, because the word ten does not 
enter into their composition. They probably owe their origin to combinations 
of the words leave-ane {leave one) and two-leave, — meaning, that in counting a 
collection of eleven or twelve individuals, when the radix ten is counted off, we 
leave one in the one case, and leave two in the othQr. — See Lardner's Cyclop<Bdiat 
Arithmetic, p. 11. 



DERIVATION. 171 

The roots of the English language may be divided into 
Separable and Inseparable. 

Separable roots are such as have been adopted into the 
language in the form of entire words ; as, lucre, from the 
Latin lucrum. 

Inseparable roots are such as have been admitted only as 
the radical parts of derivative or compound words; as, 
omni in omnipotent, from the Latin omnis. 

Such roots as have been naturalized in the form of entire or separate 
words have been adopted into the language without almost any 
change except a shght alteration or transposition of their final letters. 

But such as have been naturalized for the purpose of appearing only in 
composition as inseparable roots, have also lost their distinctive 
character as particular parts of speech. 

SEPARABLE ROOTS. 

The roots of the principal parts of speech are more easily 
traceable to their origin, and have undergone more regular 
changes in passing into the language, than those of inde- 
clinable words. 

The Saxon words, which form the basis of the language, 
have undergone various changes in their grammatical struc- 
ture as well as In their final letters. 

All the Saxon cases except the possessive — where Cs) has taken the 
place of 65"— have disappeared; the Saxon plural termination en 
has been supplanted by s, except in a few words ; as, oxe7i, hosen, 
&0C. ; the termination of the Saxon infinitive an has been dispensed 
with ; as, forgive for forgivan; and the variations of the verb ia 
the several persons have also been materially changed. 
The Latin words which have been adopted have, for the 
most part, suffered a change of termination. 

Thus, the termination alls is changed into al; as, from orientalis, 

oriental. 
Atus is changed into ate; as, from status, state. 
Bills is changed into hie; as, from laudabilis, laudable. 
Crum is changed into ere; as, from lucrum, lucre. 
Ctus and ctum are changed into ct; as, from actus, act; from effectus, 

effect; from edictum, edict. 
Cuius and culum are changed into cle; as, from circulus, circle; from 

curriculum, curricle. 
Enus is changed into ene; as, from terrenus, terrene. 



172 APPENDIX. 

Erus is changed into ere; as, from sincerus, sincere. 

Gnus and gnum are changed into gn; as, from benignus, benign; from 

signum, sign. 
Idus is changed into id; as, from candidus, candid. 
His is changed into He; as, from docilis, docile. 
Inus is changed into ine ; as, from divinus, divine, 
lo is changed into ion ; as, from religio, religion. 
Ivus is changed into ive ; as, from activus, active. 
Ns is changed into nt ; as, from innocensj innocent. 
Ntia is changed into nee ; as, from scientia, science. 
0, when preceded by a single consonant, is changed into e ; as, from 

scribo, scribe ; from conjldo, confide ; from reviso, revise ; from 

altitudo, altitude. 
0, when preceded by a double consonant, is, together with the last 

consonant, omitted ; as, from committo, commit ; from compellOf. 

compel. 
Osus is changed into ose or ous ; as, {lomjocosus, jocose ; from calam- 

itosus, calamitous. 
Sus is changed into se ; as, from sensus, sense. 
Ssus is changed into ss ; as, from recessus, recess ; from remissus, 

remiss. 
Tas is changed into ty / as, from charitas,' charity. 
TJgium is changed into uge ; as, from refugium, refuge, 
JJnus is changed into une ; as, from jejunus^ jejune. 
Urus is changed into ure ; as, from securus, secure. 
Usus is changed into use ; as, from ususj use. 
Utus and utum are changed into ute ; as, from arbutus, arbute ; from 

statutum, statute. 
Xus is changed into a: ; as, from prolixus, prolix. 

The Latin words which have suffered more than a change of termina- 
tion in passing into EngHsh are chiefly such as have been received 
through the medium of the French ; as, 



LATIN. 


FKENCH. 


EN GLISH. 


Ala, a wing 


Aile 


Aisle 


Auctor 


Auteur 


Author 


Bonitas, goodness 


Bonte 


Bounty 


Bos, an ox 


Boeuf 


Beef 


B re vis, short 


Brief 


Brief 


Califacere, to warm Echauffer 


Chafe 


Canalis, a pipe 


Chenal 


Channel 


Canna, a reed 


Canne 


Cane 


Caput, the head 


Chef* 


Chief 


Carmen, a song or 


incantation Charme 


Charm 


Catena 


Chains 


Chain 



* There can be no doubt that cAc/is from caput; because it can be traced in old 
writers through the successive stages of its progress,— cAej;«, chep.chef. 



DERIVATION. 


173 


LATIN. 


FRENCH. 


ENGLISH. 


Coluber, a snake* 


Couleuvrine 


Culverin 


Computare, to reckon. 


Compter 


Count 


Cooperire 


Couvrir 


Cover 


Cultellus 


Coutelas 


Cutlass 


Diabolus 


Diable 


Devil 


Diffnari, to think worthy 


Deigner 


Deign 


iiib.ur 


Ivoire 


Ivory 


Extraneus, outward 


Etranger 


Stranger 


Feretrum 


Biere 


Bier 


Ferox / 


Feroce 


Fierce 


Fidelitas, fidelity 


5 Feodalite 
^Feaulte 


? Fealty 


Gigas 


Geant 


Giant 


Gubernare « 


Gouverner 


Govern 


Gula, the throat 


Goulet 


Gullet 


Incantare 


Enchanter 


Enchant 


Inimicitia 


Inimitie 


Enmity 


Lectarium, « bed 


Litiere 


Litter 


Levare, to lift 


Lever 


Liftt 


Lex 


Loi 


Law- 


Macer, lean 


Maigre 


Meagre 


Magister 


Maistre, Maitre 


Master 


Magnus, great 


Magne 


Main 


Medietas, the middle 


Moitie 


Moiety 


Mirabile 


Merveille 


Marvel 


Nomen, a name 


Nom 


-Noun 


Numerus, a number 


Nombre 


Number 


Nutrix 


Nourrice 


Nurse 


Oleum 


HuJie 


Oil 


Paganus 


Paysan 


Pea^nt 


Panarium, a basket 


Panier 


Pannier 


Passus, a step 


Pas 


Pace 


Pauper 


Pauvre 


Poor 


Peregrinus 
Populus, the people 


Pelerin 


Pilgrim 


Peuple 


People 


Praepositus, placed over 


Prevost, now PrevotProvost 


Presbyter 


S Prebstre or Pres- > p^- ^^ 
I tre, now Tx^etve^^''^^^ 


Probare, to prove 


Prouver 


Prove 


Pullus, a chicken 


Poulet 


Poult, Poultry 


Puppis, the stern of a ship 


Poupe 


Poop 


Ratio, reason 


Raison 


Reason 


Recipere, to receive 


Recevoir 


Receive 


Regnare, to rule 


Regner 


Reign 


Rotundus 


Rond 


Round 


Sapor, taste 


Saveur 


Savour 


Supernus, supreme 


Souveraiii 


Sovereign 


Tegula, a tile 


Tuile 


Tile 


Traditor 


Traitre 


Traitor 


Visus, a sight 


Vue 


View 



* Many warlike instruments take their names from animals; as, basilisk, fal* 
€onet, ramrod^ &c. 

t Lift is from the perfect participle of an obsolete verb leve^ as drift from drive. 
It is still used as a participle in two instances in the Bible, 

15* 



174 



APPENDIX. 



The Greek words which have been naturalized have also 
undergone, in general, a change of termination. 

Thus, the termination ia is changed into y ; as, from prosodia, prosody; 

from apologia, apology. 
Ikos is changed into ic or ical ; as, from mechafiikos, mechanic or 

mechanical. 
Ismos is changed into ism; as, from aphorismos, aphorism. 
Ogos is changed into ogue ; as, from epitbgos, epilogue. 
The number, however, of Latin and Greek words which have been 

adopted into English as separate words is comparatively small. 

INSEPARABLE ROOTS. 

The greater number of the Latin and Greek roots of the 
Enghsh language is found only in composition. 

The changes which roots that are found only ^n composi- 
tion undergo, cannot easily be reduced to general rules ; 
but the following Hsts will sufficiently illustrate their nature : 



LATIN ROOTS FOUND ONLY IN CO IMPOSITION. 
Root and Meaning. 
Acris, sharp 
Aedes, a house 
Aequus, equal 
Aer, aeris, air 
Aevum, an age 
Ager, agri, a field 
Agger, a heap 
Ago, I do, actus, done 
Ala, a wing 
Altus, high 
Amicus, a friend 
Amo, I love 
Amor, love 
Animus, mind 



Representative. 


Example. 


acri 


acrzmony 


edi \ 


edify, edifice 


equ, equi 


eywanimity, eg'Mzlibrium 


aeri 


aerial, aeriform 


ev 


coeval 


agri 


agriculture 


agger 


exa^o-erate 


ag, act 


fluent, actor 


ali 


aliped 


alt 


exalt, altitude 


amic, imic 


amicable, inimical 


am, amor 


amiable, amorous 



Annus, a year ann, annu, enni 

Aqua, water aqua, aque 

Arceo, I drive away (erceo ere 
when compounded) 



Aro, a plough 
Ars, artis, art 
Artus, the joints 
Asper, rough 
Audio, I hear, 
heard 



ar 

art, ert 
arti 
asper 
auditus, audi J audit 



Augeo, I increase, auctus, aug^ auct, auih 

increased 
Avis, a bird avi 

Beatus, blessed heati 



animate, unanimous, ant 

TTiadvert 
annals, annual, hiennial 
aquatic, aqueduct 
coercion 

arable 

arf ful, iner^ 

articulate 

as;7erity, exasperate 

audience, audit, auditory 

augment, auction, author 

aviary 
beatitude 



DERIVATION. 



175 



Root and Meaning. 


Representative. 


Example. 


Bellum, war 


belli, 


bel 




belligerent, rebel 


Bellus, beautiful 


bell 






em6eZZish 


Bene, well 


bene 






6e7tediction 


Bibo, I drink 


bib 






\u\bibe, wine-6i6ber 


Bini, two by two 


bin 






com&wation 


Bis, twice 


bi 






5iped 


B re vis, short 


brev 






breviXy, abSreviate 


Cado, I fall, casus. 


fallen cadj 


casu, 


cid 


cadaverous, ca««al, acaVZent 



(changed into cido when 

compounded) 
Caedo, I cut, caesus, cut cid, cis 

(changed into cido and 

cisus when compounded) 
Calor, heat color 

Cando, I set on fire, cen- cand, cens, cend 

sus, inflamed 
Canis, a dog can 

Cano, canto, I sing cant, cent 

Capillus, hair capill 

Caput, capitis, the head capit, cipit 
Capio, I take, captus, ta- cap, capt, cip^ ciph 

ken (cipio and ceptus cept 

when compounded) 
Career, a prison career 

Caro, carnis, flesh earn 

Cams, dear car 

Cavus, hollow cav 

Cedo, I give place, I go, ced, ceed, cess 

cessus, giving place to 
Celer, swift celer 

Centum, a hundred cent 

Cerno, I see, I sift, cretus, cer7i, cret, creet 

sifted 
Cete, whales cet 

Cinctus, girt about cinct 

Cio, I call, I summon cit 
Clamo, I cry out clam, claim 

Clarus, clear clar, clari 

Claudo, I shut, clausus, claus, clud, clus 

shut (changed into cludo 

and clusus when com- 
pounded) 
Clino, I bend din 

Clivus, a slope cliv 

Coelum, heaven eel 

Colo, I cultivate, cultus, col, cult 

cultivated 
Comes, comitis, a com- comit 

panion 
Copia, plenty copi 

Coquo, I boil, coctus, cook, cod 

boiled 
Cor, cordis, the heart cord 
Cornu, a horn corn, cornu 

Corpus, corporis, the body corpus, corpor^ 
corpu 



homicicfe, incision, precise 



caloric 

incandescence, incense, in- 

cendidiry 
canine 

canticles, precentor 
capillSiry 

capital, precipitate 
capable, capture, anticipate, 

recipient, reception 

incarcerate 

incarTiate, carnivorous 

caress 

excat'ate, concat;e 

recef^e, succeed, concession, 

access 
accelerate, celerity 
century, centennial 
discer7i, secretion, discree;? 

cetaceous 

su cciTic^, preciTic^s 

cite, citation 

excZawiation, proclaim 

decZare, clarify 

clause, exclude, secZz^sion 



recZiTie 
decZivity 
ceZe stial 
coZony, cwZture 

concomitant 

copious 

cook, decoction 

concor<f , cor<^ial 
unicorn, corwi^copia 
corj»2^scle, incorporate, cof' 
puleni 



176 



APPENDIX. 



Root and Meaning. Representative. 

Cras, to-morrow eras 

Credo, I trust cred 

Cremo, I burn crem 

Crux, crucis, a cross cruci 

Cubo, I lie (cumbo when cub, cumh 

compounded) 
Culpa, a fault, culpo, Ifz.d culp 

fault with 
Cura, care cura, cur 

Curro, I run ^cur, curr, cour, 

Cursus, a running ^ curs, cours 

Datus, given (ditus when dit 

compounded) 
Decor, decOris, grace, decor 

beauty- 
Dens, dentis, a tooth dent 
Deus, dei, a god Dei 
Dexter, right-handed, cle- dexter 

ver 
Dico, I say, dictus, said diet 
Dies, day di 

Dignus, worthy digni 

Diurnus, daily diurn, journ 

Doceo, I teach, doctus, doc, doct 

taught 
Doleo, I grieve dol 

Dolor, grief dolor 

Dominus, a master domi?i 

Domus, a house dom 

Donum, a gift don 

Duco, I lead, ductus, led due, duct 
Duo, two du 

dur 
ebri 
ed 



Durus, hard 
Ebrius, drunken 
Edo, I eat 
Ego, I 
Emo, I buy,- 

bought 

Exter, outward exter external 

Faber, a workman fabr fabric, fabricate 

Facilis, easy, facil, facul, ficul facilitate, faculty, dHyiculty 

Facio, I make, fio, I am fact, feet, fit, fie, 



ego 
emptus, eem, empt 



Example, 
procrastinate 
credit, credulonSf credihlo 
incremation 
eruciiy 
incw6ation, incumbent 

culpable, culprit 

curator, sinecz^re 
incur, curricle, succour j ex- 
cursion, intercourse 
addition 

decorous, decoration 

dentist, dentifrice 
Deity, deify 
dexterity, dexterous 

predict, dictate 
dial, diary, merifZian 
dignity, dignitary 
diurnal, journal 
docile, doctor, doctrine 

condole 

dolorous 

domineer, dominican 

domestic, domicile 

donation 

induce, aqueduct 

dual, duel 

durable 

ebriety, inebriate 

edible 

eo-otist 

redeem, exejnption 



made, factus, made (ficio fy 
and fectus when com- 
pounded) 
Fallo, I deceive fall 

Fanum, a temple fan, fane 

Fari, to speak, fatus, hav-/a,/a« 

ing spoken 
Felix, felicis, happy felic 

Femina, a woman femin 

Fero, I carry or bring fer 
Ferveo, I boil ferv 

Fidelis, faithful fidel 

Fido, I trust fid 



factor, \ierfect, benefit, so- 
pori^c, puri/y 

in/<2?Zible, fallacious 
pro/(27iation, pro/a/ie 
inet/(2ble,/a«e 

felicity 

feminine, effeminacy 

ferry, infer, circumference 

fervid, effervescence 

fidelity 

confide, diffidence 



DERIVATION. 



177 



Root and Meaning. 
Filia, a daughter 
Filius, a son 
Filum, a thread 
Fingo, I feign, 

feigned 
Finis, an end 



Representative. 

} fili 

fil 
fictus, fg, fict 



Fiscus, the imperial trea- 
sury 

Fissus, cleft 

Flatus, a puff of wind 

Flecto,Ibend, flexus, bent 

Fligo, I dash, fiictus, 
dashed 

Flos, floris, a flower 

Fluctus, a wave 

Fluo, I flow, fluxus, a 
flowing 

Foedus, foederis, a treaty, 

Foro, I bore or pierce 

Fors, fortis, chance 

Fortis, strong 

Fossa, a ditch 

Fossus, dug 

Frango, I break, fractus 
broken (fringe when 
compounded 

Frater, a brother 

Frigeo, I am cold 

Fructus, fruit 

Fruor, I enjoy 

Fugio, Xfly, fugitum, to fly 

Fulgeo, I shine 

Fulmen, fulmmis, light- 
ning 

Fundo, I pour out, fusus 
poured out 

Gelu, frost 

Gens, gentis, a nation 

Genu, a knee 

Gero, I carry, gestus, car- 
ried 

Genitus, begotten 

Genus, generis, kind 

Glacies, ice 

Glomus, glomeris, a clew 

Gradior, I go, gradus, a 
step, gressus, having 
gone 

Gramen, graminis, grass 

Gravis, heavy 

Grex, gregis, a flock 

Haereo, I stick, hsesus, 
stuck 

Hasres, hseredis, an heir 



fin 

fisc 

fiss 

flat, flatu 
fleet, flex 
flict 

flor 
fluctu 
flu, flux 

feder 

for 

foTt^ 

forti 

foss 

foss 

frag, fract, firing 



Example. 

^Zial, affiliaie 

filament 

figment, fiction, ^rtitious 

final, finite, de^nite, defin^ 

itive 
^scal, con^scate 

j^ssure 

inflation, flatulent 
reflect, flexible 
conflict 

florist, floral 
fluctuate 
fluent, reflux 

confederate 

per/orate 

fortuiious 

fortiiy , fortitude 

fosse 

fossil . 

fragment, fracture, infringe 



frater, fratri 

fi'rig . 
fructi 
fru 
fiug,fugii 



fulmin 

fund, fus 

gel, geal, gelat 

gent 
genu 
ger, gest 

gen, genit 
gener, genera 
glaci 
glomer 

grad, gred, gradu 
gress 

gramini 
grav 
greg 
her, Ties 

hered, herit 



fraternal, fratricide 
frigid, re/r?'^eration 
fructify 
fruition 

refuge, fugitive 

refulgent 
fulminate 

refund, fnsihle, infuse 

con^eZation, congeal, gelat- 

inous 
gentile 
genu^exion 
belligerent, gesture, di^e^^- 

ion 
prOj^e^y, progenitor 
degenerate, generation 
glacial, glacier 
agglomeration 
, retrograde, ingredient, gra* 

duate, aggression 

graminivorous 

gravity 

gregarious, egregious 

adhere, cohesion 

hereditary, iiiherU 



178 


APPENDIX 




Root and Meaning. 


Representative. 


Example. 


Halo, I breathe 


Jial 


exhale, exhaMion 


Haurio, I draw, haustus 


, haust 


exhaust 


drawn 






Homo, a man 


homi, hum 


homicide, human 


Hortor, I exhort 


Jiort 


exhort 


Hospes, hospitis, a guest 


hospit 


hospitable 


Hostis, an enemy 


host 


hostile 


Humus, the ground 


hum 


inhumation, 'posthumous 


Idem, the same 


iden 


identity 


Ignis, fire 


ign 


ig7iition, igneous 


Infra, below 


infern 


infernal 


Insula, an island 


insula, insul 


peninsula, insulate 


Intra, intus, within 


inter, inti 


internal, intimate 


Iter, itineris, a journey 


itiner 


itinerate, itinerary 


Iterum, again 


iter 


iteration 


Itum, to go 


it 


exit, circuit, transit, se- 
dition 


Jaceo, I lie 


jac 


adjacent 


Jactus, thrown (jectus ject 


inject, conjecture 


when compounded) 






Janua, a gate 


jan 


janitor 


Jugum, a yoke 


>^ 


conjugate 


Junctus, joined 


junct 


adjunct, conjunction 


Juro, I swear 


jur 


conjure 


Jus, juris, right, law 


juris, juri 


jwmdiction, juridical 


Jutas, assisted 


jut 


adjw^ant, coadjw^or 


Juvenis, a youth 


juven. 


juve7iile 


Lacer, torn 


lacer 


lacerate 


Lcedo, I hurt, Isesus, hurt lid, lis 


collide, colZtsion 


(hdo and lisus when 




compounded) 






Lapis, lapidis, a stone 


lapid 


lapidary, dilapidate 


Latus, carried 


lat 


elation, translate 


Latus, wide 


lat, lati 


dilate, latitude 


Latus, lateris, a side 


later 


lateral, equiZaieral 


Legatus, an ambassador 


legat 


delegate, legation 


Lego, I bequeath 


leg 


legacy, legatee 


Lego, I gather, I choose 


leg, led 


allege, collect 


lectus, gathered 






Lego, I read, lectus, read les, led 


legible, lecture 


Lenis, gentle 


len 


lenity, lenient 


Lentus, gentle 


lent 


relent 


Levis, light 


lev, liev, lief 


levity, relieve, relief 


Levo, I lighten, I lift up 


lev 


elevate, lever 


Lex, legis, a law 


legis, leg 


legislator, legal 


Liber, a book 


libr, libd 


library, libel 


Liber, free 


liber 


liberty, liberal, libertine 


Libra, a balance 


libr 


libration, equiZi6rium 


Licet, it is lawful 


licit 


illicit 


Lignum, wood 


lignum, lign 


Zi^/mmvitae, ligneous 


Ligo, I bind 


lig, liga 


ohlige, ligament 


Linquo, I leave, rehctus 


linqu, lid 


relinquish, relict 


left 






Liqueo, I melt 


lique, liqui 


liquehction, liquid 


Lis, litis, strife 


liti 


litigious 


Litera, a letter 


liter 


literal, literature 



DERIVATION. 



179 



Root and Meaning. 
Locus, a place 
Longus, long 
Loqui, to speak 



Ludo, I play, lusus, de- 
ceived 

Lumen, luminis, light 

Luna, the moon 

Lux, lucis, light 

Macies, leanness 

Macula, a spot 

Magnus, great 

Male, wickedly 

Mando, I bid 

Mando, I chew 

Maneo, I stay 

Mano, I flow 

Manus, a hand 

Mare, the sea 

Mars, martis, the god of 
war 

Mater, matris, a mother 

Mel, mellis, honey 

Melior, better 

Memor, mindful 

Mens, mentis, the mind 

Mergo, I plunge, mersus, 
plunged 

Metior, I measure, men- 
sus, measured 

Mille, a thousand 

Miror, I gaze 

Miser, wretched 

Mitis, mild 

Mitto, I send, missus, sent 

Modus, a measure 

Mola, a millstone, flour 

Moles, a mass 

Mollis, soft 

Moneo, I warn, monitus, 
warned 

Mors, mortis, death 

Mos, moris, a manner 

Multus, many 

Munitus, fortified 

Munus, muneris, a gift 

Murus, a wall 

Muto, I change 

Natus, born 

Navis, a ship 

Necto, I tie, nexus, tied 

Nego, I deny 

Nihil, nothing 

Nomen, nominis, a name 

Non, not 



Representative. 


Example. 


loc, loco 


Zocahty, Zocomotion 


long, longi 


ohlo7ig, longitude 


loqui, loquy, loqu 


colloquial, obloquy, loqua.- 


locu 


. city, ventriZo^wist, elocu 




tion 


ludi, lus 


ludicrous, ilZwsion 


lumhi 


luminary 


lun 


lunatic, sublunary 


luc 


lucid 


mad 


emaciate 


macul 


immaculate 


magni 


magnify 


male, mal 


maleYolent, TwaZversation 


mand 


command, mandate 


mand 


mandible 


man, main 


liermanent, remain 


man 


emanate 


manu, mani 


manual, manipulation 


mar 


marine, maritime 


mart 


martial 


mater, matri 


maternal, matricide 


mell 


TweZZifluous 


melior 


ameZtorate 


memor 


memorable 


ment 


mental 


mergy mers 


emerge, imwiersion 


met, mensu 


mete, commensurate 


mill 


millenTuum 


mir 


mirror, admire 


miser 


miserable 


miti 


mitigate 


mit, miss 


remit, missionary 


mod 


mode, modify 


mol 


emolument 


mol 


molest, dewoZish 


molli 


emollient, mollify 


mon, monit 


admo7iish, monitor 


mort 


mortify, immortal 


mor 


moral 


multi 


multiform, multitude 


munit 


mimition 


muner 


remunerate 


mur 


immure 


mut 


mutable, commute 


nat 


native, 7iatal 


nav 


naval, navigate 


nectj nex 


connect, annex 


neg 


negative 


nihil 


annihilate 


nomin 


nominal, denominate 


non 


nonentity 



180 

Root and Meaning. 
Norma, a rule 
Novus, new 
Nox, noctis, night 
Nubo, I marry, nuptus, 

married 
Nudus, naked 
Nugffi, trifles 
Numerus, a number 
Nuncio, I tell 
Nutrio, I nourish 
Octo, eight 
Oculus, the eye 
Oleo, I smell 
Omnis, all 

Onus, oneris, a burden 
Opto, I wish 
Opus, operis, a work 
Orbis, a circle 
Orno, I deck 
Oro, I beg 
Os, oris, the mouth 
Os, ossis, a bone 
Otium, ease 
Ovum, an egg 
P actus, having bargained 
Pando, I spread, passus or 

pansus, spread 
Par, equal 
Pareo, I appear 
Pario, I produce 
Paro, I prepare 
Pastus, fed 
Pater, patris, a father 

Patior, I suffer, passus, 

having suffered 
Pauci, few 
Pax, pacis, peace 
Pecco, I sin 

Pectus, pectoris, the breast 
Pecuhum, property 
Pecunia, money 
Pello, I drive away, pulsus, 

driven 
Pendo, I hang, I weigh, 

pensus, hung, weighed 
Pene, almost 
Pes, pedis, the foot 
Peto, I seek, petitus, 

sought 
Pingo, I paint, pictus, 

painted 
Piscis, a fish, piscor, I fish 
Placeo, I please 
Placo, I appease 
Plebs, the common people 



APPENDIX. 




Representative. 


Example. 


norm 


enormOMS 


nov 


innovaXe, novice 


nox, nod 


eqmnox, /iocfurnal 


nub, 7iupt 


conwwdial, nuptials 


nud 


dienude 


nug 


nugatory 


numer 


numeration 


nunci, nounc 


annunciation, renouncQ 


nutri 


nutriment 


oct 


octagon, octave 


ocul 


oculist 


ol 


oZfactory, redoZent 


omni 


omnipotent 


oner 


onerous, exonerate 


opt 


adopt, option 


oper 


operose, operation 


orbi 


orbicular 


orn 


adorn, ornament 


era 


inexorable, orator 


or 


oral, adoration, orifice 


OSS 


ossify 


oti 


otiose, negoa'ate 


ov 


ot;al, oviform 


pact 


compact 


pand, pass, pans 


expand, compass, expanse 


par 


parity ^ 


par 


apparent 


par 


parent, viviparous 


par, pair 


reparation, repair 


past 


pastor, repast 


pater, patri,parri paternal, patrimony, parri- 

fidp. 


pati, pass 


patient, passive, passion. 


pauci 


paucity 


pad 


pacific 


pecc 


impeccable 


pector 


expectorate 


pecul 


^eci^Zation 


pecuni ' 


pecuniary 


pel, puis 


expel, repulsion 


pend, pens 


depend, pe?i^ulum, stipendj 




pensive, compensate 


pen 


pe?iinsula 


ped 


biped, pedestal 


pet, petit 


centripetal, competition 


paint, pict 


painter, depict 


pisca 


piscatory 


plac 


placid 


plac 


implacable 


pleb 


plebeian 





DERIVATION 


181 


Root and Meaning. 


Representative. 


Example. 


Plenus, full 


plen 


repZ^Tiish, plen\i\xd.e 


Pleo, I fill, pletus, filled 


ply, plet 


supply, complete, expletive 


Plico, I fold 


plic 


complicdiXe 


Ploro, I wail 


plor 


deplore 


Plumbum, lead 


plumb, pljim 


plumber, plummet 


Pono, I place, positus, 


pon, pos, posit 


depone, impose, position 


placed 






Populus, the people 


popul 


popular 


Porto, I carry 


port 


export, portable 


Poto, I drink 


pot 


potion 


Praeda, plunder 


preda 


predatory, depredation 


Pravus, wicked 


prav 


depravity 


Precor, I pray 


prec 


deprecate 


Prehendo, 1 take, prehen 


- prehend, prehens 


apprehend, eomprehension 


sus, taken 






Pretium, a price 


preci 


appreciate . 


Probo, I prove 


proh 


probable 


Probus, good 


prob 


probity 


Pudens, pudentis, bashful pudent 


impudent 


Puer, a boy 


puer 


puerile 


Pugna, a fight 


pugn 


pugnacious, impugn 


Puto, I lop, I think 


put 


amputate, reputation, dis- 
pute 


Putris, rotten 


putr 


putreiaction 


Quaero, I ask, quaesitus 


, quivj quest, qui- 


• inquire, inquest, requisi' 


sought 


sit, quer 


tion, query 


Quassus, shaken (cussus 


3 cuss 


discuss, percussion 


when compounded) 






Quatuor, four 


quadr 


quadrangle 


Queror, I complain 


quer 


querulous 


Quinque, five 


quinqu 


quinquennial 


Radix, radlcis, a root 


radic 


radical, eradicate 


Ramus, a branch 


ram 


ramification 


Rasus, scraped 


ras 


rasor, erase 


Ratio, rationis, reason 


ration 


rational 


Rectus, straight 


recti 


rectilineal 


Rego, I rule, rectus, ruled 


[ reg, red 


regal, rector 


Rete, a net 


reti 


re^'culate, retina 


Rideo, I laugh at, risus, 


, rid, ris 


deride, risible 


laughed at 






Rigo, I water 


rig 


irrigate 


Rodo, I gnaw, rosus 


, rod, ros 


corrode, corrosion 


gnawed 






Rota, a wheel 


rota 


rotation 


Rumen, ruminis, the throat rumin 


ruminate 


Ruptus, broken 


rupt 


bankrupt, eruption 


Rus, ruris, the country 


rus, rur 


rustic, rural 


Sacer, sacri, sacred 


sacri, seer 


sacrifice, consecrate 


Sal, salt 


sal 


saline 


Salio, I leap, saltus, leapt sali, saultj sil 


, salient, assault, resile, in- 


(siho and sultus when suit 


sult 


compounded) 






Salvus, safe 


salv 


salvation 


Sanctus, holy 


sanct 


sanctify 


Satis, enough 


satis, sati 


satisfy, satiate 


Satur, full 


satur 


saturate 


16 







182 



APPENDIX.' 



Root and Meaning. Representative. 

Saxum, a rock saxi 

Scando, I climb (scendo scend 

when compounded) 
Scindo, I cleave, scissus, sci7id, sciss 

cleft 
Scio, I know sci 

Scribo, I write, scriptus, scrib^ script 

written 
Scrutor, I search diligently scrut 
Scurra, a scoffer scurr 

Seco, I cut, sectus, cut sect 
Sedeo, I sit, sessus, sat sed, sid, sess 



Semen, semmis, seed 
Semi, half 
Senex, senis, old 
Sentio, I feel, sensus, felt 
Sequor, I follow, seciitus, 

having followed 
Sidus, sideris, a star 
Silva, a wood 
Similis, like 

Simul, at the same time 
Simiilo, I feign 
Socius, a companion 
Sol, the sun 
Solor, I comfort 
Solus, alone 
Solvo, I loose, soliitus, 

loosed 
Somnus, sleep 
Sopor, soporis, sleep 
Sorbeo, I suck in, sorptus, 

sucked in 
Sors, sortis, a lot 
Sparsus, spread (spersus 

when compounded) 
Species, a form 
Specio, I see, spectus, 

seen 
Specula, a watch-tower 
Spero, I hope 
Spiro, I breathe 



semin 
semi 
seni 

sent, sens 
sequ, secut 

sider 

silv 

simil 

simul 

simul 

sod 

sol 

sol 

sol, soli 

solvj solu, 

somni 
sopor 
sorb, sorpt 

sort 
spers 

sped 
sped, sped 



sper, spair 
spir 



Spondeo, I promise, spon- spond, spons 

sus, promised 
Stillo, I drop stil 

Stinguo, I put out, stinc- stingu, stinct 

tus, extinguished 
Stipiila, a straw stipul 

Stirps, the trunk of a tree, stirp 

offspring 
Sto, I stand, stans, stand- stat, stant, stic 

ing, statum, to stand 
Stringo, I bind, strictus, strings strict 

bound 



Example. 
saxifrage 
2iSce7id 

rescind, rescissory 

science, prescience 
inscribe, scripture 

scrutiny, inscrutohle 
scurrility 
dissect, sectarian 
sedentary, assiduous, pre- 
side, session • 

dissemmate, seminary 
semicircle 
seniliiy 

sentient, seTisation, disseTi^ 
obsequies, subse^went, per- 



si<iereal 

silvan 

similar, simi'Zitude 

simultaneous 

dissimulation 

social, society 

solar, solstice 

console 

sole, soZitude, soZiloquy 

dissolve, soluble, solution 

somniferous 

soporific 

absor&ent, absorption 

assort, consort 
disperse, as^^ersion 

specific 
specious, aspect 

speculate 

desjoerate, despair 
respiration, expire {ecspire) 

conspiracy 
respond, response, sponsor 

distil 

extinguish, extinct 

stipulate 

extirpate {ec-stirpate) 

stature, distant, solstice 

Vistringentj restrict 



DERIVATION. 



183 



Root and Cleaning. Representative. 

Struo, I pile up, structus, struct, strue, stroy 

piled up 

Stultus, a fool stulti 

Suadeo, I advise, suasus, suad, suas 

advised 

Suavis, sweet suav 

Sumo, I take, sumptus, sum, sumpt 

taken 

Surgo, I rise, surrectus, surg, surrect 

risen 

Tango, I touch, tactus, tang, tig, tact 

touched 

Tardus, slow iard 

Tego, I cover, tectus, teg, tect 

covered 

Tempus, temporis, time tempor 

Tendo, I stretch, tentus, tend, tent, tens 

stretched 

Teneo, I hold, tentus, ten, tain, tin, tent 

held 

Tenuis, thin tenu 

Tepeo, I am warm tep, tepe 

Terra, the earth terr, ter 

Testis, a witness test 

Textus, woven text 

ToUo, I hft up tol 

Tortus, twisted tort 

Traho, I draw, tractus, trah, tract 

drawn 

Tritus, rubbed trit 

Trudo, I thrust, trusus, trud 

thrust 

Tueor, I see, I protect, I tuit 

look 

Turba, a crowd turh 

Turpis, base turp 

Uber, fertile uher 

Umbra, a shadow umbra, umhr 

Unda, a w^ave und 

Unguo, I anoint, unctus, ungu, unci 

anointed 



Unus, one 
Urbs, a city 
Ustus, burnt 
Utilis, useful 
Uxor, a wife 
Vacca, a cow 



Vaco, I am empty 

Vado, I go 
Vagor, I wander 
Valeo, I am strong 
Vasto, I lay waste 
Veho, I carry 

Venio, I come, ventus, ven, vent 
come 



un, um 

urbs, urb 

ust 

util 

uxor 

vacc 
Svac 
(_ vacu 

vad, vas, wade 

vag, vagr 

vat, vail 

vast, waste 

vehi, vey 



Example. 
structme, construe, destroy 

stultify 

dissuade, persuasive 

suavity 

assume, consumption 

insurgent, resurrection 

tangent, contignous, con* 

tact 
tardy, retard 
in^e£;-ument, proifec^ 

temporal, contemporary 
distend, tent, extent, intense 

tenant, contain, continent t 
dete?ition 

tenuity, attenuate 

tepid, ^ej^efaction 

terraqueous, inter 

testify, attest 

texture, context 

extol 

tortnows, extort 

subtrahend, tractable, ex- 
tract 

trituration 

intrude, ob^rwsion 

tuition, intuitive 

. turbulent, disturb 
turpitude 
exuberant 

umbrageous, umbrella 
u?idulate, inundate 
unguent, unction 

2^7ianimous, uniform 
suburbs, urban 
comb?^srion 
utility 
uxorious 
t;accination 
vacation, i;acancy 
ei;acwate, vacuum, 
invade, invasion, wade 
i^ao^abond, vagrant 
preraZent, iprevail 
devastation, waste 
vehicle, convey v 

coni;e7ie, advent 



184 


APPENDIX. 




Root and Meaning. 


Representative. 


Example. 


Ver, the spring 


ver 


vernal 


Verto, I turn, versus, 


vert, vers 


revert, divers, tJersatile 


turned 






Ver us, true 


ver 


verity, aver 


Vestis, a garment 


vest 


vestment, invest 


Vetus, veteris, old 


veter 


veteran 


Via, a way 


vi 


obviate, obvious 


Video, I see, visus, seen 


vid, vis 


provide, visible 


Vigil, watchful 


vigil 


vigilant 


Vmco, I conquer, victus, 


vine, vie 


inviTicible, victory 


conquered 






Vita, life 


vit 


vital 


Vivo, I live, victum, to 


viv, Vict 


vivid, survive, victuals 


live 






Voco, I call, vocatus. 


voc, vok, vocat 


irrevocable, revoke, vocat- 


called 




ive 


Volo, I will, I wish 


vol 


voZuntary, benevoZent 


Volo, I fly 


vol 


volatile 


Volvo, I roll, voliitus, 


volv, volut 


revoZve, revolution 


rolled 






Voro, I devour 


vor 


voracious, carnivorous 


Vulgus, the rabble 


vulg 


vulgar, divulge 


Vulsus, pulled 


vuls 


convulsion 


LATIN ROOTS FOUND ONLY IN 


COMPOSITION, WHICH 


HAVE PASSED 


INTO ENGLISH THROUGH THE 


MEDIUM OF THE 


FRENCH. 




Root and Meaning. 


French. 


Evample. 


Campus, a field 


Champ 


Champaign 


Carus, dear 


Chere 


Cherish 


Diurnus, daily 


Jour, a day 


Adjourn 


Lex, law 


Loi 


Loyal 


Liberare, to free 


Livrer 


Deliver 


Opus, operis, a work 


CEuvre 


Manoeuvre 


Rex, regis, a king 


Roi 


Hoy al, viceroy 


Velo, I cover 


Veloper 


Envelop 


GREEK ROOTS FOUND ONLY 


IN C OMPOSITION. 


Root and Meaning. 


Representative. 


Example. 


Adelphos, a brother 


adelph 


lihWadelphia 


Aethlos, a combat 


athlet 


athletic 


Agogos, a leader 


agogu 


demagogue 


Akouo, I hear 


acous 


acoustics 


Anthos, a flower 


antho 


anthology 


Anthropos, a man 


anthrop 


\A\ilanthropy 
heptarchy, archhiahop 


Arche, beginning, sove- 


arch 


reignty 






Aristos, best 


aristo 


aristocrat 


Arithmos, number 


aritkm 


arithmetic 


Astron, a star 


astro 


astronomy 


Atmos, vapour 
Autos, self 


at mo 


atmosphere 


auto 


autograph 


Bapto, I dip 


hapt 


baptism 



_ Root and Meaning. 

Baros, weight 

Bib lion, a book 

Bios, life 

Cheir, the hand 

Chole, bile 

Chronos, time 

Chrysos, gold 

Deka, ten 

Demos, the people 

Dendron, a tree 

Doxo, I will think, dedog- 
mai, I have been judg- 
ed, doxe, an opinion 

Dromos, a course 

Drus, an oak 

Dynamis, power 

Eidos, a form 

Epos, a word 

Eremos, a desert 

Ergon, work 

Ethos, a custom 

Eu, well 

Gamos, a marriage 

Gaster, the belly 

Ge, the earth 

Geno, I produce 

Genos, kind or race 

Glossa, glotta, the tongue 

Gonia, a corner, an angle 

Gramma, a letter, writing 

Grapho, I write, graphe, a 
writing 

Gyros, a circle 

Hagios, holy 

Hecaton, a hundred 

Helios, the sun 

Hem era, a day 

Hepta, seven 

Heteros, dissimilar 

Hex, six 

Hieros, holy 

Hippos, a horse 

Hodos, away 

Homos, similar 

Hydor, water 

Hygros, wet 

Icthys, a fish 

Isos, equal 

Kakos, bad 

Kalos, handsome 

Kalypto, I cover, kalypso, 
I will cover 

Kephale, the head 

Kosmos, the world, order 

Kratos, strength 

Kyklos, a circle 
16* 



JL'IIiJXX \ IX ± XKJXy 

Representative. 


1. XV 

Example. 


haro 


haromeier 


biblio 


hibliogi'?iphy 


hio 


ftzography 


chir 


c^zVography 


chole 


cholenc 


chrono 


chronometer 


chryso 


chrysolite 


deca 


decalogue 


dem, demo 


epidemic, democracy 


dendr, dendron 


deiidrelic, rhodiodendron 


dox^ dogma 


orihodox, dogmatize 


drom 


hippo^roTTie, dromedidxy 


dru, dry 


drvXdi, dryad 


dynam 


dynamics 


eido 


kaleicZoscope 


ep 


epic, orthoepy 


erem 


eremite (hermit) 


erg, urg 


energetic, meXdllurgy 


eth 


etKical 


eu, ev 


ewlogy, evangelist 


gam 


higamy 


gastr 


gastric, gastronomy 


geo 


geography 


gen 


oxygen, hydrogeTi 


gen 


heterogeTieous 


gloss, glot 


glossary, polyglot 


gon 


ipolygo7i 


gram 


epigram, grammar 


graph 


autograph, hydrography 


gyr 


gyration 


hagio 


hagiography 


heca 


hecatomb 


helion 


aphelion 


hemer 


ephemeral 


hepta 


heptagon 


hetero 


heterodox 


hexa 


hexagon 


hier 


hierarchy 


hippo 


hippopotamus 


od 


exodus 


homo 


homologous 


hydro 


hydrostatics 


hygro 


hygrometer 


ichthy 


ichthyology 


ISO 


isoperimetrical 


caco 


cacophony 


Jcal 


ZcaZeidoscope 


calypt, calyps 


apocaZ^ptic, apocalypse 


cephal 


hydrocephalus, cephalic 


cosm 


microcosm, cosmetic 


crac, crat 


aristocracy, aristocradc 


cycl 


epic^cZe 



186 

Root and Meaning. 
Laos, the people 
Lithos, a stone 



Mache, a fight 
Metron, a measure 
Micros, Uttle 
Misos, hatred , 
Monos, alone 
Morphe, shape 
Mythos, a fable 
Naus, a ship 
Nekros, dead 
Neos, new 
Nesos, an island 
Nomos, a law 
Nosos, sickness 
Oikeo, I dwell 
Oligos, Httle, few 
Ophis, a serpent 
Optomai, I see 
Ornis, ornithos, a bird 
Orthos, right 
Oxys, acid 
Pais, paidos, a boy 
Pathos, feeling 
Pente, five 
Petra, a stone 
Phagein, to eat 
Philos, a friend 
Phobeo, I terrify 
Phone, the voice 
Phren, the mind 
Phthongos, a sound 
Polemos, war 
Poleo, I sell 
Polls, a city 
Polys, many 
Potamos, a river 
Pseudo, I deceive 
Pyr, pyros, fire 
Sarks, sarkos, flesh, the 

body 
Sitos, corn, food 
Skopeo, I see 
Sophos, wise 
Stello, I send 
Strepho, I turn 
Tele, distant 
Techne, art 
Thapto, I bury 
Theos, God 
Tithemi, I put, I suppose, 

thesis, a position 
Topos, a place 
Zoon, an animal 



APPENDIX. 




Representative. 


Exanople. 


lai 


laiiy 


litho, lit 


lithography, chrysolite 


logo, logy, logu 


logomachy, chronology, ca- 




talogue 


mack 


naumachy 


metr, meter 


geometry, thermometer 


micro 


microscope 


mis 


misanthrope 


mono 


monosyllable 


morph 


metamorphosis 


mytho 


mythology 


naut 


nautical 


necro 


necromancy 


neo 


neology 


nesus 


Feloponnesus 


nom 


astronomy 


noso 


nosology 


oeci, ochi 


antoeci, perioeci, parochial 


olig 


oZi^archy 


oplii 


op^iology 


opti 


optical 


ornitho 


ornithology 


ortho 


orthography 


Gxy 


oxygen 


pad 


pedagogue 


path 


apathy, antipathy 


pent 


pentagon 


petra, petri 


petralogy, petrifaction 


phag 


anthropophagi 


philo, phil 


, Philosophy, philanthropy 


phob 


' hydrophobia 


pTion 


euphony 


phren 


phrenology, phrensy 


phthong 


diphtho7ig 
polemical 


polem 


pol 


bibliopole 


polis 


metropolis 


poly 


polygon 
hippopotamus 


potamus 


pseudo 


pseudo-apostle 


pyro 


pyrometer 


sarco 


sarcophagus 


sit 


parasite 


scop 


telesco^^e 


soph 


sophist, philosophy 


stle, stal 


apostle, perisiaZtic 


streph " 


peristrephic 


tel^ 


telescope 


techn 


technical 


taph 


epitaph 


the, thus 


atheist, enthusiast 


thesis, thet 


hypothesis, hypo^y^e^ical 


topo 


^o;?ography 


%0Q^ %o 


zoology, azote 



DERIVATION. 187 

The Prepositions and Conjunctions are the most difficult 
words in the Enghsh language to trace to their origin, as 
well as the most irregular in the changes which they have 
undergone. 

Formerly it was the practice of grammarians to describe these parts 
of speech rather as the pegs and nails that fasten the several parts 
of the language together, than as parts of the language itself* But 
since the researches of Home Tooke and Dr. John Hunter have 
d throwTi light on their history, it is universally held that they are 
abbreviations, corruptions, or combinations of other words, espe- 
cially of verbs and nouns. 

The leading prepositions are of Saxon origin. Thus, 

After is from aft, the hind or back part of a thing; now disused 

except by seamen. 
About is from ahuta, the verge or extremity of a thing. 
Above is from ufa, high. 

Amid or amidst is compounded of a, on or in, and mid, the middle. 
Amx)ng is from gemong, mixed, the perfect participle of mangan, to 

mix. 
Before is compounded of the imperative he and the adjective fore. 
Behind is compounded of the imperative he and the adjective hind. 
Below is compounded of the imperative he and the adjective low. 
Beneath is compounded of the imperative he and the adjective neath, 

low (from whence nether and nethermost). 
Beside or besides is compounded of the imperative he and the noun 

side. 
Between is compounded of the imperative he and the numeral adjective 

twain. 
Beyond is compounded of the imperative he and goned, the perfect 

participle of gan, to go. 
By"^ is the imperative of heon, to be. 
For is from faran, passing to wards, consequence or object; as, 

*'They contend for victory;" that is, the consequence or object 

being victory. 
From is ixom frum, beginning or source; as, "Figs come from 

Turkey ;" that is, the source or beginning being Turkey. 
Near and iiigh are the adjectives neahr, nih, contiguous. 

* This is the language even of Monboddo, the most philosophical of our old 
grammarians. 

t Our ancestors wrote either be or by ; as, " Damville be right ought to have 
the leading of the army." The force of this preposition is to express one thing 
as the cause or means of another ; as, *' Damville by right,'' that is, right being, 
** ought to have the leading of the army."— Tooke. 



188 APPENDIX. 

Of* (generally pronounced ov) is from have, to possess; as, ** The 

city of David ;" that is, possessed by David. 
Over is from ufer, the comparative of ufa, high; as, ** He stood over 

me ;" that is, higher than I. Up, upper, uppermost, have the same 

origin. 
Save is the imperative of the verb save. 
Through is from thuruh, a door or gate ; as, *' The eagle flies through 

the air;" that is, the air being the passage. 
Thorough is of the same origin ; also door. 
Till is compounded of the preposition to and while, time. 
To is the same originally with do, and signifies act or completion of 

an act. It is opposed to from, the beginning; as, "Figs come 

from Turkey to England ;" that is, Turkey being the beginning, 

England the finishing or end. 
Toward is compounded of to and ward, the imperative of vjardian, to 

look at ; as, ''I move towards the city;" that is, with my view 

directed to the city. Ward, to guard, is of the same origin. 
With is the imperative of withan, to join ; as, "A house with a party 

wall ;" that is, "A house, join a party wall." 
Without is from withutan, the imperative of wyrthanutan, to be out. 

Withoulen occurs as a preposition in old English writers, and is still 

used in Scottish poetry. 

The leading Conjunctions are also of Saxon origin. Thus, 

A7id is an abbreviation of anad, the imperative of ananad, to add ; as, 
" Two and two make four ;" that is, '* Two add two make four." 

As is the same with es, equal. 

But is from hot, the imperative of hota?i, to superadd; as, **I came 
expecting to find you, hut I was disappointed ;" that is, '' Add, I was 
disappointed." ''To boot" is of the same origin. The preposi- 
tion hut is an abbreviation of he out, or hy out, and signifies unless 
or except; as, "I saw nobody hut John;" that is, "unless" or 
"except" John. 

Either is the same with the adjective either, one of two; as, " It is 
either day or night ;" that is, " One of the two, day or night." 

Eke is the imperative of eke, to add ; as, " John Gilpin was a citizen ; 
a train-band captain eke was he ;" that is, " Add, a train-band cap- 
tain was he." 

Else is the imperative of alesan, to dismiss ; as, " Give me the book, 
or else I will go ;" that is, " Omit to give me the book, and I will 



* Of is so vague in its signification, that it may be used for many of the other 
prepositions. Thus, we can say, a descendant of or from ; a friend 0/ or to; 
hatred of or for ; an associate of or with ; beloved of or by, &c. But possession 
is probably its original signification, in common with that of the termination of 
the possessive cascy to which it is equivalent. 



DERIVATION. 189 

If is from the imperative gif or gifan^ to give or grant; as, "i/" I 
go ;" that is, '' Gif or give, suppose, gram, that I go." 

Lest is contracted lor lesed, the participle of lesan, to dismiss ; as, 
'* Take care lest you fall;" that is, " Take care; this being dis- 
missed, you fall." 

Or is a contraction for the numeral adjective other; as, "Give me 
either the black or the while ;" that is, " Give me one of the tvw — 
the black, other the v^^hite." 

Since is the participle of seo7i, to see, and is equivalent to seeing ; as, 
" Since it is so ;" that is, " Seeing it is so." 

Still is from stell, the imperative oi slellan, to suppose ; as, " Though 
I desired him to depart, still he is not gone ;" that is, " Suppose or 
remark, he is not gone," 

That is from theat, the perfect participle of ihean, to assume or- sup- 
pose; as, "I believe that your statement is correct;" that is, *' I 
believe the thing assumed, viz. your statement, is correct." That 
is conveniently considered as alike an adjective pronoun, a relative 
pronoun, and a conjunction; but it is in all cases originally and 
really a participle or adjective. 

Then is from the present participle of thean, to assume or suppose ; as, 
"So then, they that are in the flesh cannot please God;" that is, 
" So, assuming what has been just advanced, they that are in the 
flesh cannot please God." 

Though is, from the imperative of thohte,* to think or suppose; as, 
" Though he was learned, he was modest;" that is, ^^ Suppose he 
was learned." 

Unless is from onles, the imperative of onlesan, to dismiss ; as, *' Un- 
less ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish;" that is, '^Dismiss the 
supposition — ye. repent, ye shall all likewise perish." 

Yet is from the imperative of getan, to get ; as, " Though he slay me, 
yet will I trust in him ;" that is, " Suppose he slay me, get or obtain 
this, I will trust in him." 



II. 0RI;GIN of ENGLISH DERIVATIVES, 

English Derivatives are formed chiefly by attaching to 
the Root, or essential part of a word, certain Prefixes and 
Affixes. 

A Prefix is a particle placed before a root to vary its 
sense ; as, ^i^perstructure, rebuild. 

* This account of thoufrh is from Dr. Jamieson, wlio says that the form in which 
it occurs in our most ancient MSS. is thocht and althocht. Tooke derives it from 
the imperative of thajian, to allow. 



190 APPENDIX. 

An Affix or termination is a particle added to the root to 
vary its signification ; as, plenti/wZ, d^xMsh, 

A derivative formed by means of a prefix is always of the same part 
of speech with its root, provided that root exist as a separate word in 
the language ; as, ^z^nt, return ; navigation ^ circumudiVig^Liion. 

A derivative formed by means of an affix has the part of speech to 
which it belongs determined by the affix rather than by the root ; as, 
life, lifeZess; brother, brotherZ?/. 

Prefixes are chiefly prepositions, and are of as great 
diversity of origin as the roots which they modify. 

The following are the prefixes of purely Enghsh or Saxon origin, with 
their import : — 

A signifies on or in; as, a-foot, that is, on foot; a-bed, that is, in bed. 

Be signifies about; as, ftesprinkle, that is, sprinkle about; also for or 
before; as, 6espeak, that is, speak for ox before. 

JEn signifies in or on; as, e?icircle, that is, circle in; also, make; as, 
e7^feeble, that is, make feeble. {En is changed into em in roots be- 
ginning w^ith b or p; as, embark, cTwpower.) 

Fore signifies before; as, foresee, that is, see beforeha?id. 

3fis denotes error or defect; as, misdeed, that is, a wrong or evil deed. 

Out denotes excess or superiority; as, outrun, that is, surpass in ruu' 
ning. 

Over denotes eminefice or excess; as, overcharge, that is, to charge too 
much. 

Tin, before an adjective or adverb, signifies not; as, wTiworthy, that is, 
not worthy; un,* before a verb, signifies the undoing oi the act ex- 
pressed by the verb ; as, unfetter, that is, to take off fetters. 

Up denotes motion upwards ; as, upstart ; — algo subversion; as. 



With signifies /rom or against; as, withdraw, that is, draw from; with- 
stand, that is, stand against. 

The following are the prefixes of Latin origin, with their import : — 

A, ab, abs, signify /row or away; as, avert, that is, turn from; absolve, 
that is, loose from; «6stain, that is, ^oZ^ /row. 

Ad signifies to; as, adhere, that is, stick to. {Ad assumes the various 
forms of a, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at, according to the com- 
mencing letter of the root with which it is joined; as, ascend, ac- 
cede, affix, ag-grandize, aZlot, annex, appeal, arrest, assume, aUract.') 

Am signifies round about; as, ambient. 

Ante signifies before; as, antecedent, that is, going before. 

* Un is sometimes prefixed to a verb without altering the sense ; as, loose, it»« 
loose. 



DERIVATION. 191 

Circum signifies round or about; as, circumnavigate, that is, sail round, 
Cis signifies on this side; as, cisalpine, that is, on this side the Alps. 
Con signifies together; as, convoke, that is, call together. {Con takes 

also the various forms of co, cog, col, com, cor; as, co-operate, cog" 

nate, coZlect, commotion, correlative.) 
Contra signifies against; a.s, coTi^radict, that is, speah against, {Con.' 

tra sometimes takes the form counter; as, coww^erbalance.) . 

De signifies down; as, deject, that is, cast down. ^ 

Dis signifies asunder; as, distract, that is, draw asunder; also nega^ 

tionov undoing; as, disarm, that is, take arms from. {Dis has also 

the forms of di and dif; as, diverge, diffuse.) 
E, ex, signify out of; as, egress, that is, going out; ea^clude, that is, 

shut out. {E, ex, take also the form of ec, ef; as, eccentric, e/flux.) 
Extra signifies beyond; as, ea?fraordinary, that is, beyond ordinary. 
In, before an adjective, signifies not; as, mactive, that is, not active; 

in, before a verb, signifies in or into; as, inject, that is, throw in or 

into. {In has also the various forms of ig, il, im, ir; as, %noble, 

I'Zluminate, import, irradiate.) 
Inter signifies between; as, intervene, that is, come between. 
Intro signifies to within; as, introduce, that is, lead within. 
Juxta signifies nigh to; as, juxta^iosiiion, that is, position nigh to {a. 

thing). 
Ob signifies in the way of or opposition; as, o&stacle, that is, something 

standing in the way. { Ob also has the various forms of oc, of, o, op; 

as, occur, offend, omit, oppose.) 
Per signifies through or thoroughly; as, perforate, that is, bore through; 

perfect, that is, thoroughly done. 
Post signifies after; as, postdiluvian, that is, after the flood. 
Pre, or prcB, signifies before; as, predict, that is, tell before. 
Preter, or prcBter, signifies past or beyond; as, preternatural, that is, 

beyond the course of nature. 
Pro signifies for, forth, or forward; as, pronoun, that is, for a noun; 

provoke, that is, call forth; proceed, that is, go forward. 
Be signifies back or again; as, retract, that is, draw back; rebuild, that 

is, build again. 
Peiro signifies backwards; as, reifrospect, that is, a looking backwards. 
Se signifies aside or apart; as, secede, that is, go aside or apart. 
Sine signifies without; as, smecure, that is, without care or labour, 

{Sine also has the form of sim and sin; as, smple (without a fold) ; 

sincere (w^ithout mixture). 
Sub signifies under or after ; as, sub-headle, that is, under-beadle. 

{Sub has also the forms of sue, suf, sug, sup, sus (contracted for 

subs) ; as, succeed, suffuse, suggest, s?^ppress, suspend.) 
Subter signifies under or beneath i as, subterfuge, that is, a flying under, 

a shift. 



192 APPENDIX. 

Super signifies above or over ; as, superfluous, that is, flowing over or 
above. {Super has also the French form, sur ; as, surmount.) 

Trans signifies over from one place to another ; as, transport, that is, 
carry over. 

Ultra signifies beyond ; as, ultra mundane, that is, beyond the world. 

The following are the prefixes of Greek origin, with their import : — \ 

A or an signifies without or privation ; as, apathy, that is, want of feel- 
ing ; aTionymous, that is, without a name. 

Amphi signifies both or the two ; as, amphihioMS, that is, having loth 
lives, or capable of living both in land and water. 

Ana signifies through or up ; as, anaiomy, that is, a cutting through 
or up. 

Anti signifies against ; as, a7j.ii- Christ, that is, opposed to Christ, 
(Anti has sometimes the contracted form of a?*^ ; as, aTiiarctic, oppo- 
site to the arctic or north.) 

Apo signifies /row or away ; as, aj9ostasy, that is, a standing or depar- 
turefrom. {Apo has sometimes the contracted form of ap ; as, ap 
helion, away from the sun.) 

Cata signifies down ; as, catarrh, that is, a flowing down, a slight cold, 

Dia signifies through ; as, f^taphanous, that is, appearing through 
transparent. 

Epi signifies upon ; as, epitaph, that is, upon a tombstone. 

Hyper signifies over and above ; as, ^T/percritical, that is, over or too 
critical. 

Hypo signifies under ; as, hypothesis, that is, a placing under a suppo- 
sition. 

Meta denotes change ; as, metamorphosis, that is, a change of shape. 

Para signifies near to or side by side as if for the purpose of comparison ^ 
and hence sometimes similarity, and sometimes contrariety ; as, 
_parody, a poem imitated from another ; paradox, an opinion contrary 
to the geiieral opinion. 

Peri signifies rou7id about ; as, ^periphrasis, that is, a round about mode 
of speaking, a circumlocution. 

Syn signifies together ; as, syTithesis, that is, a placing together. (Syn 
has also the forms sy, syl, sym; as, system, syllogism, sympathy.) 

The Affixes have probably, in common with the Prefixes^ 
considerable diversity of origin ; but their origin, as well as 
their import, it is more difficult to ascertain. 



DERIVATION. 



193 



The following are those which most frequently occur : — 



denoting the agent or doer 
of a thing. 



^n 

Ant 

Ar 

Ard 

Ary 

Eer 

Ent ' 

Er 

1st 

Ive 

Or 

Ster^ 

Ate^ denotingthe person acted upon 

Ee S and equivalent to the pas- 

Ite J sive termination ed. 

Acy 

Age 

Ante or Ancy 

Ence or Ency 

Hood 

Ion 

Ism 

Ment 

Mony 

JVess 



denoting being or 
state of being 
taken abstractly. 



Ship 

Th 

Tude 

Ty or ity 

Ure 

Y 

^^ i denoting jurisdiction. 

Cle ^ 

Kin I 

Let j' diminutive terminations. 

Ling I 

Ock j 



Ac 

Al 

An 

Ar 

Ary 

En 

Ic or ical 

He 

Ine 

Ory 

Ate \ 
Ful 1 
Ose 
Ous 
Some I 

r J 

ish -y 

Like y denoting likeness. 

Ly j 



> denoting of ox pertaining to. 



y denoting full of or abundance. 



Ive 



Able 
Ible 



denoting capacity in an active 
sense. 

denoting capacity in a passive 

sense. 



Less denoting privation. 

Isfi denoting a smaller degree of. 

1 



Ate 
En 
Fy 
Ish 
Ise 
he 



> denoting to make. 



Ly denoting like in quality. 
Ward denoting in the direction of. 
The parts of speech which are formed from radical words by means 
of affixes are, the Noun, the Adjective, the Verb, and the Adverb. 
Nouns denoting the agent, or doer of a thing, are formed from nouns 
and verbs denoting the act, by adding the affixes an, ant, ar, ard, 
ary, eer, e7it, er, ist, ive, or, ster ; as, 



From Guard 


guardian 


From Bake 


baker 


Assist 


assistant 


Murder 


murderer 


Beg 


beggar 


Conform 


conformist 


Dote 


dotard 


Operate 


operative 


Adverse 


adversary 


Inspect 


inspector 


Chariot 


charioteer 


Pun 


punster 


Adhere 


adherent 







Noims denoting the person acted upon are formed from nouns and 
verbs denoting the act or object, by adding the affixes ate, ee, 
ite ; as, 
From Potent potentate I From Bedlam bedlamite 



Trust 



Favour 



favourite 



Nouns ending in the affixes er or or, and ee, are used in opposition-^ 
the former denoting the agent, the latter the person acted upon ; as, 
assigner, assignee ; indorser, indorsee, 

n 



194 



APPENDIX. 



Nouns denoting being, or state of being, are formed from nouns, verbs, 

and adjectives, by adding acy, age, ance, dncy, ence, ency, hood, ion, 

ism, me?it, mony, ness, ry, ship, th, tude, ty or ity, ure, and y ; as, 

contrition 

despotism 

parallelism 

achievement 

merriment 

acrimony 

acuteness 

rivalry 

friendship 

depth 

growth 

aptitude 

loyalty 

absurdity 

durability 

disclosure 

mastery 

jealousy 

Nouns denoting jurisdiction are formed from nouns or adjectives, by 
adding dom or ric ; as, 
From King kingdom | From Bishop bishopric 

Diminutive Nouns are formed from the names of persons or things, 
by adding cle, kin, let, ling, ock ; as. 



From Pirate 


piracy 


From Contrite 


Conspire 


conspiracy 


Despot 


Intricate 


intricacy 


Parallel 


Bond 


bondage 


Achieve 


Dote 


dotage 


Merry 


Repent 


repentance 


Acrid 


Fragrant 


fragrance 


Acute 


Expectant 


expectancy 


Rival 


Flagrant 


flagrancy 


Friend 


Adherent 


adherence 


Deep 


Condole 


condolence 


Grow 


Abstinent 


abstinence 


Apt 


Agent 


agency 


Loyal 


Emerge 


emergency 


Absurd 


Decent 


decency 


Durable 


Boy 


boyhood 


Disclose 


Likely 


likelihood 


Master 


Exhaust 


exhaustion 


Jealous 



From Corpus 


corpuscle 


From Duck 


duckling 


Lamb 


lambkin 


Hill 


hillock 


Stream 


streamlet 







Adjectives denoting of or pertaining to a thing are formed from the 
name of the thing described, by adding ac, al, an, ar, ary, en, ic or 
ical, He, ine, ory ; as. 



From Elegy 


elegiac 


From Angel 


angelic 


Autumn 


autumnal 


Canon 


canonical 


Republic 


republican 


Infant 


infantile 


Consul 


consular 


Adamant 


adamantine 


Moment 


momentary 


Expiate 


expiatory 


Wood 


wooden 







Adjectives denoting abundance are formed from the names of the pro- 
perty, by adding ate, ful, ose, ous, some, y ; as. 
From Affection affectionate I From Hazard hazardous 

Hope hopeful | Glad gladsome 

Globe globose I Pith pithy 

Adjectives denoting likeness are formed from nouns, by adding ish, 
like, ly ; as, 
From Child childish I From Maiden maidenly 

Saint saintlike I 

Adjectives denoting capacity in an active sense are formed from verbs, 
by adding ive ; as. 

From Accumulate accumulative 
Adjectives denoting capacity in a passive sense are formed from nouns 
or verbs, by adding able, ible ; as. 
From Detest detestable | From Contempt contemptible 



DERIVATION. 195 

Adjectives denoting privation are formed from the name of the thing 
wanting, by adding less ; as, 
From Art artless | From Cause causeless 

Diminutive Adjectives are formed from other adjectives, by adding 
ish ; as, 
From Dark darkish | From Brown brownish 

Verbs involving the idea of to make as a part of their signification are 
formed from nouns and adjectives, by adding ate, en, fy, ish, ise or 
ize ; as, 



Alien 


alienate 


From Public 


publish 


Perpetual 


perpetuate 


Pure 


purify 


Length 


lengthen 


Epitome 


epitomise 


Black 


blacken 


Equal 


equalize 


Type 


typify 







Verbs ending in en are generally of Saxon origin, en or an being, in 
that language, the sign of the infinitive. 

Verbs ending in ate are generally of Latin origin ; but the distinguish- 
ing characteristic of verbs of Latin origin is, that they always form 
their past tense and perfect participle in d or ed, and are not in this 
respect subject to the same irregularities with those which are derived 
from the Saxon. 

Adverbs denoting quality are formed from adjectives, by adding 
ly ; as, 
From Abrupt abruptly j From Kind kindly 

Adverbs denoting in the direction of are formed from nouns, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs, by adding ward; as. 

From Home homeward I From On onward 

West westward J 

The English language has, in many instances, two sets 
of Derivative words expressive of the same thing, the one 
of Saxon, and the other of Latin origin. Thus, 

SAXON. LATIN. 

Fearful Timid 

Swiftness Velocity 

Womanish Effeminate 

Building Edifice 

Fewness Paucity 

The best specimens of pure unmixed Saxon are probably to be found 
in "The Bible"* and in "The Pilgrim's Progress." Dr. John- 
son's writings afford the best specimens of Latinized English. The 
Latinized style is the more sounding, the Saxon the more forcible. 
English nouns are often of Saxon origin, while the corre- 
sponding adjectives are derived from the Latin. 

The number of our inseparable roots being so great, it necessarily hap*- 
pens that a considerable proportion of our derivatives come directly 

* Of the fifty-eight words of which the Lord's Prayer is composed, there are 
only three which are not immediately derivable from the Saxoa. 



SAXON. 


LATIN. 


Heijjht 


Altitude 


Lifeless 


Exanimate 


Yearly 


Annual 


Watery 


Aqueous 


Hearer 


Auditor 



196 



APPENDIX. 



from other languages, without having any corresponding pru.ix ^ 

in English. But in no class of words is this so apparent as in adjec- 
tives formed directly from Latin nouns.* 

The following are those which most frequently occur : — 



Nouns from Saxon. 


Adjectives from Latin. 


From 


Beginnings 


Initial 


initium 


Boundary 


Conterminous 


conterminus 


Breast 


Pectoral 


pectus 


Carcass 


Cadaverous 


cadaver 


Cat 


Feline 


felis 


Country 


( Rural I 
\ Rustic ) 


rus 


Cow 


Vaccine 


vaeca 


I)ej2;ree 


Gradual 


gradus 


Disease 


Morbid 


morbus 


Dog 


Canine 


canis 


Ea? 


Auricular 


auris 


End 


Final 


finis 


Enemy 


Hostile 


hostis 


Eye 


Ocular 


oculus 


Field 


Agrarian 


ager 


Finger 


Digital 


digitus 


Flock 


Gregarious 


grex 


Flour 


Farinaceous 


farina 


Guardianship 


{ Tutelar l 
i Tutelary \ 


tutela 


Hand 


Manual 


manus 


Head 


Capital 


caput 


Hire 


Mercenary 


merces 


Horse 


Equestrian 


equus 


House 


Domestic 


domus 


island! 


Insular 


insula 


Kitchen 


Culinary 


culina 


Light 


Lucid 


lux 


Light 


LuminouiS 


lumeji 


Lion 


Leonine 


leo 


Lungs 


Pulmonary 


pulmo 


Mind- 


Mental 


mens 


Money 


Pecuniary 


pecunia 


Moon 


Lunar 


luna 


Mouth 


Oral 


OS 


Nose 


Nasal 


nasus 


Place 


Local 


locus 


Rabble 


Vulgar 


vulgus 


Ring 


Annular 


annulus 


Rival. 


Emulous 


emulus 


Root 


Radical 


radix 


Rule 


Regular 


regula 



* " In English, instead of adjectiving our own nouns, we have borrowed*, in 
immense numbers, adjectived signs from other languages, without borrowing the 
unadjectived signs of these same ideas; because our authors found they had occa- 
sion for the former but not for the latter. And, not understanding the nature of 
language, or the nature of the very benefit they were receiving, they did not im- 
prove their own language by the same contrivance within itself, but borrowed 
from other languages abbreviations ready made to their hands. Tlius, instead of 
turning such nouns as finger, mind, life, skin. Sec, into adjectives, they adopted 
adjectives formed from the corresponding nouns in other languages; as, digital, 
mental, vital, cutaneous, «fec. This practice is the more to be lamented, as it has 
rendered the English language very difficult to be acquired. For, as the matter 
now stands, when a poor foreigner has learned all the names of things in the 
English tongue, he must go to other languages for the adjectived names of the 
same things. And even an unlearned native can never understand the meaning 
of one quarter of that which is called his native tongue." — Horne Tooke* 



DERIVATION, 



19T 



Norms from Saxon. 



Adjectives from Latin, 



Sea 


( Marine 
( Maritime t 


Shepherd 


Pastoral 


Shoulder 


Humeral 


Side 


Lateral 


Sight 


Visual 


Soldier 


Military 


Spring 


Vernal 


Sun 


Solar 


Theft 


Furtive 


Thish 


Femoral 


Too^th 


Dental 


Treaty- 


Federal 


Whale 


Cetaceous 



From 

mare 

pastor 
humerus 
iatus 
visus 
miles 
vcr 
sol 

furtunt 
femur 
dens 
JfadtLS 



Some nouns of Saxon origin ha\^ two sets of adjectives, 
one derived immediately from the nouns, the other from the 
Latin. Thus : — 



iVouns frooi SasoQ, Adjectives from Saxos, Adjectives from Latin, From 



Body 


Bodily 


Boy 


Boyish 


Brother 


Brotherly 


Burden 


Burdensome 


Day 


Daily 


Death 


Deadly 


Earth 


Earthly 


Father 


Fatherly 


Fault 


Faulty 


Fire 


Fiery 


Flesh 


Fleshy 


Glass 


Glassy 


Grief 


Grievous 


Hair 


Hairy 


Hatred 


Hateful 


Health 


Healthy 


Heart 


Hearty 


Heavea 


Heavenly 


Help 


Helpful 


rce 


Icy 


Ring 


Kingly 


Law 


Lawful 


Life 


Lively 


Love 


liovely 


Man 


Manly 


Mother 


Motherly 


Night 


Nightly 


Pitch, 


Pitchy 


Point 


Pointed 


Priest ' 


Priestly 


Reason 


Reasonable 


Star 


Starry 


Strength 


Strong 


War 


Warlike 


Water 


Watery 


Will 


Willing 


Woman 


Womanly 


Wood 


Woody 


World 


Worldly 


Year 


Yearly 


17* 





Corporal 


corpus 


Puerile 


puer 


Fraternal 


Jrater 


Onerous 


<mus 


Diurnal 


dies 


Mortal 


mors 


Terrestrial 


terra 


Paternal 


pater 


Culpable 


•culpa 


Igneous 


ignis 


Carnal 


t,aro 


Vitreous 


titrum 


Dolorous 


dolor 


Capillary 


capillm 


Odious 


■odium 


; Salabrious J 
' Salutary \ 


salus 


Cordiaf 


cor 


Celestial 


ccElum 


Auxiliary 


auxiliuM 


Glacial 


^lacies 


Regal 


rex 


Legal 


lex 


Vital 


vita 


Amorous 


umor 


Human 


homo 


Maternal 


mater 


Nocturnal 


nox 


Bituminous 


bitumen. 


Punctual 


punctum 


Sacerdotal 


^acerdos 


Rational 


ratio 


Stellar 


Stella 


Robust 


rohur 


Martial 


mars 


Aqueous 


tLqua 


Voluntary 


voluntas 


Effeminate 


femina 


Sylvan 


sylva 


Mundane 


mundus 


Aaaual 


«»R«ti 



198 APPENDIX. 

Some derivatives, from contraction, change of cognate 
letters, and similar causes, have undergone such alterations, 
that their origin is scarcely discernible. 

Thus, curfew, the evening-bell (Uterally, cover-fire), is an abbreviation 
of cover and feu (fire), because it was the signal for extinguishing 
fires. 

Quiver, that which holds or covers arrows, is another form of cover. 

Proxy, one who is deputed to supply the place of another, is a contrac- 
tion oi procuracy (compounded oipro, for, and cura, care). 

The two points which determine the affinity of words in respect of 
origin, are identity of letters and identity of signification, or letters 
of the same organ, and a signification obviously deducible from the 
same sense. 

II. PRIMARY SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS.* 

Language being intended for the communication of 
thought, the words of which it consists must each have a 
certain signification. 

There does not seem to be any necessary connexion between words 
and the thoughts they express. They appear to have become sig- 
nificant merely by usage ; and it is now impossible to say in what 
manner the conventional connexion between the sign and the thing 
signified was at first established. 

Originally all words seem to have been applied in one 
sense only. 

Words, after being introduced into a language, are often 
employed in different and successive meanings. 

The same bias which leads man to enrich language rather by the 
modification of words already in use than by the creation of new 

* The pupil should be cautioned against the error of supposing that the present 
Tneaning of words is to be acquired by learning the history of their pedigree. It 
is from established usage, not etymology, that the precise m'^aning of words must 
be gathered. Etymology is a deceitful guide in questions about the propriety or 
impropriety of expressions. The instances are few indeed, as is well remarked 
by Dugald Stewart, in which etymology furnishes effectual aids to guide us in 
fixing the exact signification of ambiguous terms, or in drawing the line between 
expressions which seem to be nearly equivalent. In such cases, nothitig can be 
safely trusted to but that habit of accurate induction, which, by the study of the 
most approved models, elicits gradually and insensibly th^ precise notions which 
our best authors have annexed to their phraseology. Etymological researches 
are. however, of great use. Independently of their being calculated to gratify a 
natural and liberal curiosity, they furnish important data for illustrating the mi- 
grations of mankind, and the progress of laws, of arts, and of commerce; they 
throw \\<z\\X. on peculiar constructions, and they enable a man to obtain a famili- 
arity vv'ith th(; general meaning, as well as to acquire a mastery ovec the use of 
his language which no other study can impart. 



DERIVATION. 199 

ones, leads him also to prefer using an old word in a new sense to 

the inventing of an additional term. 
The words charity, conversation, offence, prevent, are instances of 

words applied in the successive acceptations at different periods of 

time. 
Charity is used in Scripture as synonymous with love ; it is now very 

much restricted to liberality to the poor. 
Conversation is used in Scripture to signify citizenship, or freeman- 
ship ; it now commonly means familiar discourse or intercourse. 
Offence, in Scripture, signifies a stumbling-block or occasion of stum- 

bling ; it now signifies a cause of displeasure. 
To prevent, in Scripture and in the English liturgy, means to go before 

or anticipate ; it now generally means to obstruct or hinder. 

The signification of words is either Primary or Secon- 
dary. 

The Primary or radical sense of a word is that in which 
it is first used in language. 

The Secondary or figurative sense is that which is after- 
wards superinduced on the primary. 

A word can have only one primary, but it may have vari- 
ous secondary meanings. 

Some words are used in their primary sense only. 

Some words are used both in their primary and secon- 
dary senses. 

Thus, to transport, signifies to carry across from one place to another^ 
which is its primary meaning; and also to carry iiito banishment as 
a felon, and to carry away with pleasure, which are secondary 
meanings. 

Some words have lost their original and retain only their 
secondary significations. 

Thus, period, which primarily signifies a path round about, a circuit, 
is restricted to express a definite portion of time, or the end of a cer- 
tain duration, or the point which marks the end of a complete sentence. 

The words which admit of the greatest latitude and 
variety of meaning are those which enter largely into com- 
position as the radical parts of derivative or compound 
words. 

Thus, the radical parts of the following words, all v/hich represent 

ftaier, a father, have a difi^erence of meaning in each. 
Paternal, belonging to a father. 
JPatrimouY, an inheritance acquired from a father. 



200 APPENDIX. 

Patriarch., one who governs by paternal right. 
Patrici3.n, a nobleman (of the rank oi pat res, or senators). 
Patriot, one who loves his native or father land. 
Patronymic, a family-name. 
Patron, one who takes another under his care. 
Parricide, one who kills his father. 

Paier-noster, the Lord's Prayer (so called, because it begins ** Pater 
noster," that is, '* Our Father.") 

The radical meaning of a word, when discovered, always 
furnishes the key which explains and reconciles the remotest 
of its secondary significations. 

Thus, to let, which signifies both to allow and to hinder,* has its oppo- 
site meanings explained by a reference to its root let, which signifies 
a slvAce or ve7ii for water, which, of course, either allows or obstructs 
the flowing of the water, according as it is opened or shut. 

In like manner, heat and hate, though apparently unconnected in pre- 
sent signification, are found to be reconcileable when discovered to 
be both derivatives of the same Saxon root haetan, to stir or agitate, 
hate and heat alike involving the idea of violent excitement. 

So also reck, reckon, and right, though greatly varied in their applica- 
tion, are all from a root signifying stretching or straining. Reck, 
that is, care, is a stretching of the mind towards an object ; reckon, 
both in its sense of think and in its sense of calculate, is also a 
stretching of the mind ; and right is strait or stretched, whether used 
in its primary sense, as in the expression " A right line," or in its 
metaphorical sense, as in the expression, *'The Lord will do that 
which is right.^^i 

Many of the prepositions may also be cited as illustrations ; their 
diverse and often opposite applications admitting of explanation from 
their primary meaning. Thus, for denotes both in favour of (as, 
*^ The gift is for a friend"), and in opposition to (as, " It rains ; for 
all that, he will ride,"— that is, *'in opposition to all that," or, 
"notwithstanding the rain, he will ride.") But the primary sense 
(from faran, to pass towards) of passing or m.oving towards a place, 
reconciles both significations. The moving or going towards a place 

* As, " He let me ^o ;" that is, " he allowed me to go." " I was let from com- 
ing unto you ;" that is, " I was hindered,'''' &c. 

t These examples prove that words of the same generic meaning are often 
found in very different applications. But still more striking illustrations of this 
fact are furnished by the application of words of the same generic meaning in 
different languages. The same word, leap, is used both in English and in Ger- 
man ; but in the former it signifies simply to spring ; in the latter it signifies to 
run. Jinti in Greek and ante in Latin not only represent the same idea, viz. 
priority, but they are the same words. Yet the former signifies opposition, and 
never priority in point of time merely; while the latter is employed to denote 
only priority in point of time. 



DERIVATION. 201 

or thing may either be in friendship or in hostiUty. Which of the 
two it is, in any one case, must be determined by the context, — all 
that the preposition expresses being simply the going or moving 
towards. 

. Words pass from original to secondary applications ac- 
cording to fixed rules. 

The changes of meaning which words undergo being ultimately de- 
pendent upon the laws that govern human thought in the use of 
arbitrary signs, the connexion between the original and every suc- 
cessive sense in which they are employed is necessarily fixed. But 
this connexion cannot be always reduced to fixed rules ; nor is it 
even possible in all cases to trace the progress of their meanings, or 
to show by what steps they have passed from their primitive to their 
present application. 

The following are the transitions that most frequently occur: — 

1. Words which primarily denote the qualities of sensible 
objects are extended to describe the analogous mental and 
moral qualities. Thus, 

Sour signifies primarily acid ; secondarily, austere or peevish. 

Acute (from acus, a needle) signifies primarily sharp j opposed to blunt ; 

secondarily, ingenious, opposed to stupid. 
Sanguine (from sanguis, blood) signifies primarily red, hke blood ; 

secondarily, ardent. 

2. Words are often transferred from one object to another 
which has some resemblance, real or supposed, to the for- 
mer. Thus, 

The Latin granum, a grain of corn (from whence the Enghsh grain)^ 
is the parent of granite, a stone spotted as if with grains. 

Lens, a kind of leiitile or pulse, is the parent of lens, a lentile-shaped 
piece of glass or other transparent substance used in optical science. 

Fyr, the Greek word for fire, is perhaps the parent of pyramid, a build- 
ing resembling in shape a flame of fire. 

3. Words of a generic signification are often restricted in 
their application to a specific object or idea. Thus, 

Deist, which primarily denotes one who has or admits a God, is the 
name for one who believes in a God but rejects Christianity. 

Prelate signifies hterally a person preferred or elevated ; but it is 
limited to express an ecclesiastical dignitary, a bishop. 

Rector literally means a ruler in general ; but it is commonly restrict- 
ed to mean either, as in England, a clergyman of a certain rank, or, 
as in Scotland, the head-master of a principal school. 



202 APPENDIX. 

4. Words which are specific in their primary application, 
often pass into general terms. 

Of this description are all proper names which are used as common 

nouns, and adjectives derived from them. Thus, 
Jesuit, which primarily means a member of the Society of Jesus, is 

applied generally to describe a person of great subtlety and cunning. 
Philippic, the name of the orations in which Demosthenes inveighed 

against Philip of Macedon, is used to denote invective in general. 
But words of this kind are not the only instances in which the ten- 
dency to generahze the signification of terms is to be found. 
Birch, the twigs of which are employed in some English schools as 

the instrument of punishment, has come to mean an instrument of 

correctio7i in general. 
Emolument, which primarily means the grist of a mill, or toll taken 

for grinding, has been- generalized to signify profit or gain, whatever 

be the source of it. 

5. In many words the change from one meaning to an- 
other consists mel'ely in a slight deflection or difference of 
application. 

The following instances will illustrate the nature of the deflections by 
which words successively slide from one original import to a variety 
of figurative and remote applications : — 
From the Latin corpus, corporis, the body, are derived 

Corpse, a dead body. 

Corporeal, of or belonging to the body. 

Corpulence, bulkiness of body. 

Corps, a body of soldiers. 

Corporal, a subordinate military oflScer, commanding a small body 
of soldiers. 

Corporation, a body municipal. 
From the Latin hospes, hospitis, a host or guest, are derived 

Hospitable, kind to strangers. 

Hospital, a refuge for the sick. 

Hotel (formerly hostel), an inn. 

Hostler, the keeper of the horses at an inn. 
From the French jour, a day, are deduced 

Adjourn, to put off" till another day. 

Journal, a diary, and also a paper or book published periodically. 

Journey, travel by land, originally the travel of a day. 

Sojourn, to reside for a time, originally for a day. 

Journeyman, a workman for a limited time, originally by the day. 
From the French parler, to speak, are deduced 

Farley, an oral treaty. 



DERIVATION. 203 

Parole, word of promise. 
Parliament, the great British council. 
Parlour, a room (for conversation). 
From the Saxon pocca (in Scotch and Old English poke), a hag, are 

deduced 
Pock (in the plural ^wa?), pustule or vesicle (of the shape of a bag). 
Pocket, a bag inserted into clothes. 

Poach, to steal game (from the practice of putting it in a bag). 
From the Latin pondus, ponderis, a weight, are deduced 
Ponderous, heavy. 
Ponder, to weigh mentally. 
Pound, a specific weight ; also a sum of money, 20s. value, so called 

from the money being originally weighed. 
Pounder, a gun that carries a bullet of so many pounds, as a six- 
pounder. 
Poise, to balance (a weight). 
From the Latin pono, I put or place ; positus, put or placed, are 

deduced 
Position, situation. 

Posture, attitude or place of the body. 
Positive, certain (properly or certainly placed or set) ; also dogmatical 

(ready to place or lay down notions with confidence). 
Post, a beam set erect ; also any fixed place or station. 
Post, mode of convejdng letters or of travelHng by means of horses 

placed at different stages. 
Postage, payment for conveyance of letters. 
Repository, a place where things are deposited or kept. 
Supposititious, not genuine ; put by trick in the place or character 

belonging to another. 
Depose, to put down from an office ; to degrade, or divest of. 
Deponent, one who lays down or gives evidence in a court of justice. 
Repose, rest; literally f)Zace(^ or laid back (for rest). 
Expose, to lay open ; generally applied to the exposure of evil. 
Expound, to interpret. 
Expositor, one who expounds or interprets. 
Impose, to lay on, to cheat. 
Imposition, laying on, cheating. 
Impost, a tax (laid on). 

Impostor, one who cheats by assuming a fictitious character. 
From the Latin primus, first, are deduced 
Prime, early, first-rate. 

To Primcj to put the first powder in the pan of a gun. 
Primer, B, first book for children. 
Premier, the first minister of state. 
PrimatCt the first or highest ecclesiastic. 



204 APPENDIX. 

Primitive J ancient. 

Prim (from primitive), formal, precise. 
Primrose, an early flower in spring. 
From the Latin senex, old, are deduced 
Senior, elder in age or in office. 
Signior, a title of respect (given originally to age). 
Senate, a council (because composed originally among the Romans of 

old men). 
Senator, a public councillor. 
Sire, father ; also a title of address to kings. 

6. Many words owe their secondary sense to purely acci- 
dental and often very singular associations. 
The following are instances : — 

Atlas, a collection of maps, is derived from Atlas, an African king, 
who, from his fondness for astronomy, is said to have supported the 
heavens on his back, and whose portrait in this attitude is often 
prefixed to books of maps. 

Cabal f a close intrigue, is said to owe its origin to the initial letters of 
the names of five celebrated cabinet ministers of Charles II., — 
Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. Cahalf 
the science of the Rabbins, is a word of Hebrew origin. 

Clergy, the order of men set apart for the service of God, is from 
cleros (Gr.), a lot or inheritance, probably because the Hebrew priests 
had a special lot or portion assigned them among the other tribes. 

Clerk, one who records transactions in writing, and formerly the usual 
name for a scholar, is from clericus, a clergyman, because the clergy 
were at one time the only persons who were fit for situations requir- 
ing learning. 

Dactyl, a foot in verse, consisting of one long and two short syllables, 
is from dactylos (Gr.), a finger, — a finger consisting of a long and 
two short joints. 

Pagan, a heathen, is from pagus (Lat.), a village ; because, after the 
establishment of Christianity in the Roman empire, the heathen 
being driven to villages and other parts remote from cities, were 
called pagani, that is, villagers. 

Pontiff, priest (in haimpontifex, that is, bridge-maker), is said to have 
been originally applied to the ministers of rehgion ; because at Rome 
they had the charge of repairing a particular bridge, which had also 
been built by them. 



THE END. 



CATALOGUE 



VALUABLE 

SCHOOL BOOKS 



TO WHICH 



THE ATTENTION OF PERSONS INTERESTED IN THE CAUSE OF 
EDUCATION IS RESPECTFULLY SOLICITED. 



PUBLISHED BY 

THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT &. CO., 

253 MARKET STREET. 

PHILADELPHIA; 

AND FOR SALE BY THE PRINCIPAL BOOKSELLERS 
IN THE UNITED STATES. 



MITCHELL'S 
AMERICAN SYSTEM 

OF 

STANDARD SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, 
IN A SERIES: 

Adapted to the progressively developing Capacities of Youth, 

PUBLISHED BY 

THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT «& CO., PHILADA. 

AND FOR SALE BY THE BOOKSELLERS GENERALLY. 



ADVERTISExMENT. 

To secure to this series the character assumed in the title, the author has been 
aware, in presenting it for the consideration of the American people, that the geo- 
graphical works composing it should possess all the requisites necessary to such 
character ; and, therefore, solicits a deliberate and critical examination of every 
feature that should constitute the requisites of standard quality, some of which 
are the following : — 

GEOGRAPHICAL ACCURACY.— That no time be lost by unlearning errors, 
or evil arise from retaining them. 

ARRANGEMENT. — Adapted to the average capacities of youth in the vari- 
ous stages of advancement ; and also to effect an easy transition from one volume 
to another. 

CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN THE TEXT AND THE ATLAS.— 
By which the mind is relieved from the embarrassment of searching after facts in 
one not contained in the other, or of reconciling disagreements between them. 

MECHANICAL EXCELLENCE AND BEAUTY— That a distinct im- 
pression be made upon the mind of each fact presented, and the taste cultivated 
at the same time that knowledge is communicated. 

QUALITY OF MATERIALS AND BINDING.— Upon which depend du- 
rability, and consequent cheapness. 

PERIODICAL REVISION OF EVERY FIVE YEARS.— After the work 
shall have been adapted to the census of 1840, the revision will be rigidly executed, 
noting all new facts and changes, in such manner as that the old and new editions 
can be used in the same classes without embarrassment, thereby preventing all the 
evils incident to a change of books, and saving large sums of money, now lost, in 
consequence of the old editions being rendered worthless by their discrepancy with 
the new, and by which we shall be enabled to keep pace with the progress of the 
science throughout the world. 

A part of the before-named series is now before the public, viz : the PRIMARY 
SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, the SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS, the 
ATLAS OF OUTLINE MAPS, and the GEOGRAPHICAL READER. 

2 



[ 3] 



Of the SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS, tho publishers have received 
BO numerous and unqualitied testimonials from all parts of the Union where they 
have been presented and examined, as to leave no room for doubt, that their first 
anticipations of furnishing a series of geosrapiiical works of such intrinsic merit 
as to become the standard text-books in the science of geography, will be fully 
realized. 

The ATLAS OF OUTLINE MAPS, whether considered as an accompani- 
ment to facilitate the progress of the pupil, as an agreeable variation in the rou- 
tine of studies, or as an easy introduction to the useful art of map-drawing, has, 
in all instances, met with the same decided approval. 

The GEOGRAPHICAL READER is designed not only as a reading book for 
schools, where it can be introduced by substituting it for other books without ad- 
ditional cost, and present the double advantage of communicating, at the same 
time, the art of reading and an enlarged knowledge of geography, but also for 
instruction in famiUes, as well as for perusal by those who are desirous of obtain- 
ing information by private study. Though but recently published, it has already 
received the decided approval of many intelligent teachers and other gentlemen, 
whose opinions are deservedly of high authority. 

The HIGH SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, and THE KEY TO THE STLT)Y 
OF THE xMAPS COMPRISING MITCHELL'S SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, 
yet in the press, %vill be judged of by their merits, both as separate works and as 
links in the series, when presented for consideration. They will be published with 
as little delay as a careful preparation of all parts of the books will permit. 

That teachers and all others interested in the cause of general education, who 
would be pleased to examine these works with reference to their fitness for the 
place claimed for them, may fully understand the plan, a prospectus of each is 
hereto subjoined, in the order in which they will stand in the series. 



MitcheWs Primary School Geography. 

This little work is intended as a first geography for children, and is prepared for 
the use of those who have begun to spell and read, with some degree of facility. 
Tho author has endeavoured, accordingly, to render it as easy of comprehension, 
and aa interesting to the youthful pupil, as its Umits will permit. 

The Primary Geography contains 176 pages, about 120 engravings, and fourteen 
maps. These are executed from original designs, by the best artists, in their 
respective branches, in the United States. 

Pictorial illustrations, well designed, and especially adapted to the work they 
accompany, are auxiliaries so essential, that without them a geography for young 
persons would possess but little value. Many of the most important facts of the 
science of geography may be impreHsed on the mind by visible images more forci- 
bly than by any other means. 

The introduction of moral and religious sentiments into books intended for the 
instruction of young persons, is calculated to improve the heart, and lend addi- 
tional strength to parental admonition. Accordingly, throughout the work, when- 
ever the subject permitted, such reflections and observations have been made as 
are calculated to show the superiority of enlightened institutions, the excellence of 
the Christian religion, and the advantages of correct moral principles, as may 
readily be comprehended by the juvenile learner. 



[ 4] 
MitclieWs School Geography and Atlas. 

This work has been published upwards of a year, and has been already liberally 
encouraged and circulated in various parts of the United States. The extent to 
which it has been introduced into the most respectable seminaries, and the strong 
and decided testimonials in its favour received from eminent teachers and gentle- 
men of the highest respectability for talent and discrimination, justify the publish- 
ers in presenting it as a treatise of undoubted merit. 

The Geography contains 33(1 pages, and is illustrated by more than 200 engrav- 
ings : these are all from new designs, and are executed in a style greatly superior 
to what is usually seen in works of this description ; many of the engravings elu- 
cidate important facts stated in the text, and others embrace a number of striking 
objects in nature and art : these interest the scholar, excite a spirit of inquiry, and 
relieve the mind from that dull uniformity, so justly complained of by those who 
study school geographies deficient in this respect. 

The work is divided into sections of sach extent as are considered sufficient for 
one lesson : these are gradually enlarged from the beginning to the end of the 
book, so as to keep pace with the increasing capacity of the pupil. The descrip- 
tion of the definitions, so essential to a clear understanding of the science of geo- 
graphy, will be found, perhaps, as simple and easy of comprehension as can well 
be obtained. It is arranged chiefly in the method of question and answer, yet pre- 
senting, it is believed, sufficient scope to exercise the mental faculties of the pupil. 

The Atlas contains eighteen maps, which are all engraved from original draw- 
ings, and are executed in the clear and distinct manner for which Mr. Mitchell's 
maps are distinguished. The care bestowed upon all parts cf the engraving, the 
ease with which every name on the maps may be read, the location of remarkable 
events connected with the history of our own and other countries, with the inser- 
tion of the lines of rail-roads and canals, and the distances from one continent to 
another, are all regarded as essential improvements. , 

The geographical and statistical tables appended to the Atlas contain a great 
amount of interesting information, comprising a view of the extent and popula- 
tion of all the countries represented on the maps, together with the heights of 
mountains, lengths of rivers, and statistics of the United States, the latter embrac- 
ing lists of universities, colleges, and other institutions, canals, rail-roads, &c. 
These tables may be considered as forming an aggregate of the whole work, and 
give it a character of perfection, without which it would be deficient in complete- 
ness and finish. 



MitchelVs Atlas of Outline Maps. 
(an accompaniment to Mitchell's school atlas.) 

This Atlas corresponds with seven of the principal and most useful maps accom- 
panying the School Geography. On these the names of places are entirely omitted, 
leaving nothing but the natural features of the countries they illustrate, and the 
chief political boundaries or divisions. 

It is well known that no method so well fixes in the mind of the learner the form 
and relative position of countries, islands, &c., as drawing maps. To draw them 
entirely is a work of time, and what comparatively but few scholars ever attain 
the art of doing well ; but the exercise of com.pleting the Outline Maps from thp 
finished Atlas possesses all the advantages to be derived from map-drawing, witii 
a great saving of time. 



[5 ] 

MitchelVs Geographical Reader, for Schools and 
Families, 

Tills work contains 600 pages, and comprises a general description of the vari- 
ous divisions of the earth, with their several empires, kingdoms and states, pre- 
ce<led by a compendious history of the progress of geographical science. 

The design of the work is indicated by the title. It may be read in classes by 
those v/ho are using Mitchell's School Geography, or by pupils farther advanced 
in their studies. This book will be found equally convenient to heads of families 
who wish to teach their children, or to adults who have passed their period of 
tuition. 

The arrangement of countries is the same as in the "School Geography," the 
descriptive details are extended in proportion to its enlarged dimensions, and will 
be found to give a lively and interesting picture of the world, according to its con- 
dition at the present day. 

The Reader is also arranged to correspond with " Mitchell's School Atlas," so 
that those who already have the latter will be in possession of a suitable accom- 
paniment to the former ; and individuals who are not may obtain it at a cost much 
below the price charged for Atlases compiled to illustrate treatises of equal extent 
with the Geographical Header. 

An important and, perhaps, paramount feature of the Reader is, that its intro- 
duction into schools can be effected without additional cost, by dispensing with 
other reading books. This will bring it within the means of the humblest pupils, 
and enable our whole population to acquire an accurate knowledge of the science. 



A Key to the Study of the Maps comprising MitcheWs 
School Atlas. 

The Key to the study of Maps comprises a series of lessons arranged to corre- 
spond in every respect with Mitchell's School Atlas. The work forms an easy in- 
troduction to the study of Maps — the foundation of all exact geographical know- 
ledge, and has been prepared as the most proper preliminary study for beginners in 
geography. 



MitcheWs High School Geography and Atlas. 

The High School Geography will contain about 600 pages, and will comprise a 
complete system of mathematical, physical, political, statistical, and descriptive 
modern geography, together with a compendium of ancient geography, and the 
whole will be illustrated by views, representations of remarkable natural objects, 
illustrations of costumes, architecture, races of men, animals, &c. The whole of 
the engravings will be executed by the first artists in the country. 

The Atlas to accompany the above will contain not less than thirty maps, con- 
structed particularly for the work, and designed to correspond with and illustrate 
it in the most precise manner. The maps will be engraved in the neat and distinct 
style for which those of "Mitchell's School Atlas" are distinguished ; they will 
contain, however, in some respects, a greater amount of detail, and such additional 
particulars as the higher and more advanced grade of tuition for which they are 
intended may demand. 



CATALOGUE 

OF 

SCHOOL BOOKS. 

FROST'S UNITED STATES. 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES; for the 

use of Schools and Academies. By Johx Frost. Illustrated 
with 40 engravings. 

The design of the author in this, his larger history, has been to furnish a 
text-book full and complete enough for the use of colleges, academies, and 
the higher seminaries. It begins with the discovery of the New World, and 
presenting the series of events in a clear and connected narrative, rejecting 
whateverVas considered irrelevant or unimportant, and dwelling chiefly on 
those striking features of the subject which give it vividness and character ; 
the history is brought down to the present day. " Although," says the author 
in his preface, " the considerable period embraced, the multitude of characters 
and events delineated, and the extent of the field in which they figure, have 
rendered the preservation of historical unity no easy task, he has laboured to 
give the work such a degree of compactness as would enable the student Lo 
perceive the relation of all its parts, and to grasp the whole without any very 
difficult exercise of comprehension." 

The numerous testimonials to the merit of this work, and its popularity 
evinced quite unequivocally by the sale of ten thousand copies within a few 
months after its first publication, afford a strong presumption that the author 
has succeeded in his purpose of making it a first-rate school history. 

The following notices and recommendations of Frost's History, are selected 
from an immense number which have been sent to the publisher. 



REOOIVEIVIENDATIONS. 

Mr. Biddle, 

Dear Sir— I am glad to see that the "History of the United States," which 
you announced some time since, has made its appearance. The extensive 
research which has of late years been carried on upon the subject of American 
history, and the careful investigation of original sources of intelligence, by 
Individuals eminently qualified for the task, have furnished valuable mate- 

6 



[7] 

rials from which to enlarge and to correct the historical records of our coun- 
try. It was time to have these advantages transferred to works designed for 
the purpose of education. I was happy, therefore, to observe by your an- 
nouncetnent, that a book on this plan was to be prepared. I have since been 
gratified with the perusal of the volume ; and I take pleasure in saying that 
It appears to me in every respect well executed. It avoids the fault with 
which most compilations are chargeable— that of merely sketching a general 
outline of events, too brief and abstract to gain the attention of the student. 
It is free, at tiie same time, from injudicious prolixity and detail. 

The style is clear, concise, and spirited ; free on the one hand from the 
ambitious and rhetorical character, and on the other, from the negligence 
and inaccuracy into which most of our popular compends have fallen. 

As a history of the United States, it is, in my opmion, more full and more 
exact than any of the same size, and in all other respects preferable, as a 
book intended to aid the business of instruction. 

WILLIAM RUSSELL, 
Editor of the American Journal of Education, Jlrst series, 
Philadelphia, Oct. 1836. 

NeiD York, January 11, 1837. 
We fully concur in the sentiments above expressed. 
G. J. HOPPER, JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN, 

RUFUS LOCK WOOD, MYRON BEARDSLEY, 

ROYAL MANN, WILLIAM H. WYCKOFF, 

JOHN OAKLEY, THEODORE W. PORTER, 

HENRY SWORDS, C. C. JENNINGS. 

GEORGE INGRAM, ROBERT J. FURNEY, 

JOHN C. TREADWELL, AARON RAND, 

JOSEPH M'KEEN, EDMUND D. BARRY, D.D., Princi- 

F. S. WORTH, pal of a Classical Academy. 

WILLIAM FORREST, SAMUEL GARDNER, 

F. A. STREETER, D. STEVENS, 

JAMES LAWSON, SAMUEL BROWN, 

DAVID SCHOYER, JOSEPH M. ELY, 

SOLOMON JENNER, P. PERRINE, 

C. WM. NICHOLS, SAMUEL RICHARDS. 

JOSEPH MOONEY, 

From S. Jones, A.M., Philadelphia, corner of Seventh and Carpenter streets 
A History of the United States for the use of schools, such as the present, 
has long been greatly needed— something to correspond in its general charac- 
ter with the admirable histories of Goldsmith, which have been received with 
so much favour. I have examined the volume prepared by Mr. Frost, and 
"although the considerable period embraced, the multitude of characters and 
events delineated, and the extent of the field in which they figure," have 
called for the exercise of great judgment in the selection, as well as in the 
arrangement of his materials , yet this difficult task has been accomplished 
with a success which is highly creditable to the author. The great industry 
and fidelity with which it has been composed are very apparent ; and the 
" List of Authorities," at the end, evinces that he has availed himself of the 
best sources of information. It gives me pleasure to commend this History 
of the United States, as being better suited to the valuable purpose for whicb 
it was designed, than any other which has hitherto come imder my notice. 
February, 1837. S. JONES, 

Mr. E. C. Biddle, 

Your " Frost's United States" is, in my judgment, by far the best school book 
in the department of history that we have. It ought to supersede, in respect, 
to more advanced pupils, any other text-book extant on this subject. I can 
only wish that it may be placed within the reach of those for whom it is in. 
tended, inasmuch as the wark needs to be known merely, in order to be gene- 
rally adopted. 

CHARLES HENRY ALDEN. 



[8] 

Columbia Academy ^ Philad., Nov. 15, 1836. 
Mr. Edward C. Biddle, 

Dear Sir,— I am so well pleased with "Frost's History of the United 
States," and its merits as a school book, that I have organized a class who 
are now engaged in studying it. 

Respectfully yours, &c. 

J. H. BROWN. 

We fully concur in the opinions expressed above. 



AUGUSTINE LUDINGTON, 
SAMUEL CLENDENIN, 
ARCHIBALD MITCHELL, 
THOMAS T. AZPELL, 
T. G. POTTS, 
J. B. WALKER, 

H. LONGSTRETH, A.M., Classical 
Teacher, Friends' Academy. 

D. R. ASHTON, 
WILLIAM MARRIOTT, Principal 

of Philadelphia Select Academy, 
corner of Fifth and Arch streets. 
RIAL LAKE, 

E. FOUSE, N. E. corner of Race and 
Sixth streets. 

WILLIAM A. GARRIGUES, Mathe- 
matical Teacher. 
L 1. HITCHCOCK, 
THOMAS BALDWIN, 
T. SEVERN, 
JOHN SIMMONS, 
JOHN EVANS, 
JOHN STOCKDALE, 
Rev. SAML. W. CRAWFORD, A.M. 
Principal of the Academical Dept. 
of the University of Pennsylvania. 

I have examined "Frost's History of the United States,'* just published, and 
cheerfully recommend it to the attention of teachers as a very superior work 
of the kind. In style, a most important point in works of this character, it is 
decidedly superior to some of the most popular historical compends now used 
in our schools and academies. 

Baltimore, March 16, 1837. R. CONNOLLY. 

Dear Sir,— I have long felt the wantof a good History of the United States, 
and was pleased to have the opportunity of perusing trost's. I am so much 
pleased with its elegance of language, neat arrangement, copious questions, 
and style of getting up, that I shall at once introduce it into my school, and 
use my influence to give il a wide circulation. 

Baltimore, March 16, 1837. E. B. HARNEY, 



JOHN COLLINS, 
MATTHIAS NUGENT, 
RICHARD O'R. LOVETT, 
S. H. REEVES, 
JAMES CROWELL, 
l^HOMAS COLLINS, 
R. M'CUNNEY, 
THOMAS H. WILSON, 
DAVID SMITH, 
BARTRAM KAIGHN, 
M. SEMPLE, 
B. \^ BL.\CKWOOD, 
WILLIAM M'NAIR, 
E. W. HUBBARD, 
WILLIAM LEWIS, 
E. NEVILLE, 
JOHN ALLEN, 
WILLIAM MANN, 
JAMES E. SLACK, 
L. W. BURNETT, 
CHARLES MEAD, 
THOMAS M'ADAM, 
WILLIAM ALEXANDER, A.M. 
JOSEPH RAPP, No. 41 Sansom 

street, 
JOHN PURLZ, 



We fully concur in the above. 

EDWARD S. EBBS, 
MICHAEL POWER, 
ANDREW DINSMORE, 
JAMES WILKISON, 
N. M. KNAPP, 
DAVID KING, 
JOHN R. GARBOE, 
JOSEPH WALKER, 
JAMES E. SEARLY, 
THOMSON RANDOLPH, 
CHARLES H. ROBERTSON, 



CHARLES F. BANSEMOS, 
ROBERT O'NEILL, 
JOHN HARVIE, 
E. YEATES REESE, 
PHILIP WALSH, 
JOHN KIRBY, A.M. 
BENJAMIN G. FRY, 
S. M. ROSZEL, 
JOSEPH H. CLARKE, 
JOHN KEELY, 
PARDON DAVIS. 



[9] 



Baltimore, March, 1837. 
Mr. E. C. BiDDLE, 

Sir,— I have examined with some aitention "A History of the United 
States, by John Frost," published by you. I am so much pleased with ita 
happy arrangement, correct style, and careful investigation into the inci- 
dents of our history, that I shall introduce it into my school, as earljr as prac- 
ticaLle, and I think its merits need only be known, to recommend it to every 
school in the country. 

I am, respectfully, &c. 

A. A. DOWSON. 

By the politeness of the puolisher, Mr. E. C. Biddle, of Philadelphia, we 
have received; through his a^ent, a copy of Frost's "History of the United 
States ;" and having examined it, are infinitely pleased with the work. The 
compiler has departed sufficiently from the path of common historians, to 
render his work truly entertaining, without overlooking any important histo- 
rical fact. The chronological and statistical tables are full, the subject mat- 
ter well arranged, and it seems adapted in every important respect for use 
in schools and^academies. KNAPP & WILLS. 

Gay Street Seminary, March 20, 1837. 

Baltimore Female Classical School. 
Mr. Biddle, 

Sir,— As far as I have examined " The History of the United States," which 
you put into my hands for that purpose, it receives my decided approbation ; 
and in corroboration of this, 1 snail introduce it immediately, as a text-book, 
into my school. 

A. B. CLEAVELAND, A.M., M.D., Schoolmaster. 
Baltimore^ March 16, 1837. 

Frovi Stephen S. Roszel, A.M., PrincipaL of ^^ Spring Seminary,''^ BaltiTTiore. 
Mr. E. C. Biddle, 

Sir,— A superficial examination of " Frost's United States" is quite suffi- 
cient to convince any impartial and enlightened mind of its general excel- 
lence, and especially of its admirable adaptation to the purposes Oi scholas- 
tic study. The simplicity ol its arrangement, the perspicuity of its delinea- 
tions, and the elegance of its style, combine to recommend its adoption in 
all our literary institutions, and to secure in its favour the cheerful plaudits 
of universal approbation. Respectfully, 

S. S. PvOSZEL. 



Philadelphia, March 24, 1838. 
This is to certify, that "Frost's History of the United States" has been 
adopted as a class-book by the Controllers of the Public Schools of the First 
School District of Pennsylvania, and is in general use in the public schools 
in the city and county of Philadelphia. 

R. PENN SMITH, 
Secretary of the Board of Controllers. 



Frost's History of the United States has been reprinted in 
London as the first of a series of national histories written by 
natives of the respective countries to which they relate. This is a 
compliment not often paid to Afnerican school books by British pub- 
lishers. 



[10] 

FROST'S 
HISTORY FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED SfATES FOR 

THE USE OF COMMON SCHOOLS. By Joh.^ Frost, 
author of " History of the United States for the use of Schools 
and Academies," " The American Speaker," &c. 

This work is condensed from the author's larger History of the United 
States for the Use of Schools and Academies. In reducing the quantity of 
matter to such a compass, as will place the volume wiLhin the reach of the 
eommon schools, no pains have been spared to preserve all that is essential 
to a clear and comprehensive history of the country. No event of importance, 
noticed in the larger history, is passed over in this, although many of the 
minor details are considerably condensed ; and some circumstances and ob- 
servations bavins a comparatively unimjx)rtant bearing on the main story, 
are entirely omitted. 

The author's design, in accomplishing the condensationof his former work, 
has been to furnish the common schools of the country with a history, in a 
cheap and convenient form, which would be complete and sufficient for the 
purposes of sound instruction, not only in the plan and arrangement, but in 
the amount of solid information which it should comprise. How far he may 
have succeeded in this attempt it remains for the friends of popular education 
to determine. 



RE003WIIVIENDATI0NS. 

The following are selected from a large number of recommendatiorxS of the 
above work which have been received by the publishers. It has been adopted 
by the Controllers of the Public Schools ol the City and County of Philadelpthia, 
and by father committees of public schools in various parts of the country. 

From the Rev. C. H. Alden, Principal of the Philadelphia High School for 
Girls. 

"Frost's History of the United States" is a text-book in my achool, and is 
justly a favourite. I have often regretted that an edition, in a smaller 
volume, with numerous illustrative engravings, was not furnished for the use 
of our junior classes and common schools. 1 am glad, therefore, to see what 
I thought a desideratum, and in a style, and at a price so well adapted to the 
purposes intended. This volume, I find, is abridged from the larger volume 
very judiciously, and can be recommended very confidently to general use. 
There is no history of our country, in my opinion, at all comparable with it as 
a common school book. 

CHARLES HENRY ALDEN 

Philadelphia, Oct. 23, 1837^ 

I judge "Frost's History of the United States" to be a most excellent epitome 
of American history. Many interesting and important facts relative to Ame- 
rican affairs, in other works ©f the kindomitted, are therein judiciously intro- 



[11] 



duced. The simplicity and elegance of the style cannot fail to please every 
attentive reader. The appendix, containing the consiituiion of our beloved 
land, as also a useful chronological table, will render the work doubly 
valuable. WM. ALEXANDER, 

October 12, 1837. Teacher of Languages, Philadelphia. 

Philadelphia, Nov. 16, 1837. 

I have just ^ot through with an examination of "Frost's History of the 
United States lor Common Schools." I have, for a long time, felt the need 
of a history of our country that should embrace all the most important events, 
and, at the same time, present a style and arrangement attractive to the 
common reader. My wishes were fully met upon^receiving a copy of the 
'arger work, by the same author. This work ought to be placed in every 
library as well as in every school. 

This smaller work, which appears to be condensed from the larger one, 
contains all the important facts and retains the same easy style that charac- 
terized the book from which it was abridged. I feel safe in recommending 
it to others, and shall introduce it into my seminary as an introduction to the 
large work, so soon as 1 can dispense with other works now in use. 

Yours, &c. 

H. BILL Union Hall. 

Mr. E. C. Biddle : 

Dear Sir,— I have to acknowledge the favour of copies of " Frost's United 
States for the use of Common Schools," and of" The American Speaker" by 
the same gentleman. As you have my opinion of the book from which the 
first of these works is condensed, it is not necessary to say much of the present 
volume. The, author, it seems to me, has furnished a book better suited to a 
large class of pupils than his former work ; and while it is complete and suf- 
ficient for the purposes of sound instruction, not only in the plan and arrange- 
ment, but in ihe amount of solid information which it comprises, can be af- 
forded at one-half the price of the larger volume. I am making use of both 
of these "Histories," with entire satisfaction. "The Speaker" contains a 
great variety of pieces, selected, with much care and judgment^ from our most 
successful orators, and is well adapted to promote the object of the compiler. 
The Principles of Elocution, by Mr. Ewing, which are prefixed to the collec- 
tion, and the number of exercises marked with intiections, give this work 
claims over all other books of the kind I have examined, and will, doubt- 
less, secure for it a ready introduction to our colleges and academies. The 
work has been precured by a number of my pupils, and I unhesitatingly 
commend it. .Yours, &c. 

S. JOIS^ES, 
No 17 South Seventh street^ Philadelphia. 



Philadelphia, March 24, 1838. 
This is to certify, that " Frost's History of the United States" 
nas been adopted as a class-book by the Controllers of the Public 
Schools of the First School District of Pennsylvania, and is in 
general use in the public schools in the city and county of Phila- 
delphia 

R. PENN SMITH, 
Secretary of Board of ControUers* 



[12 J 



FROST'S AMERICAN SPEAKER. 



THE AMERICAN SPEAKER ; comprising a com- 
prehensive Treatise on Elocution, and an extensive Selection of 
Specimens of American and Foreign Eloquence. Embellished 
with engraved Portraits of distinguished American Orators, on 
steel. By J. Frost, author of History of the United States. 

The design of this work is to furnish a correct and satisfactory treatise on 
the Principles of Elocution in a small spa.ce; and a very rich and copious 
collection of specimens of Deliberative, Forensic, Academic, and Popular 
Eloquence, filling up the greater portion of the volume. It has met with a 
very rapid sale, six thousand copies having been called for within a few 
weeks after its first appearance. The estimation in which it is held by intel- 
ligent teachers will appear by the following: 



RE003Vr3VrENDATIONS. 

From William Russell, Esq., Teacher of Elocution, first Editor of the 
Journal of Education. 

Dear Sir,— The "American Speaker," edited by Mr. Frost, is, I think, one 
of the best volumes for practical exercises in elocution, that instructers or 
students can find. The rules and principles laid down in the introductory part 
of the book, comprise whatever is most useful in Walker's system, as abridged 
by Mr. Ewing of Edinburgh. The compends of Mr. Ewing were preferred 
to all others, by the late Dr. Porter of Andover, whose critical knowledge and 
pure taste in relation to the art of elocution are so extensively appreciated. 

The numerous rules on the manner of reading the series— so termed by 
elocutionists— may be differently viewed by instructers, according to the ex- 
tent to which they follow Walker's authority. But there can be no diversity 
of opinion as to the utility of the other parts of the work, and, particularly, 
the many pieces in which the inflections of the voice are marked throughout 
by appropriate accents. Respectfully, yours. 

Mil. E. C. BiDDLE, Philadelphia. WM. RUSSELL. 

Mr. Biddle: 

I consider " Frost's American Speaker" to be the best compilation of the kind 
that has ever met my eye. The principles of elocution therein laid down are 
excellent, and well calculated to promote eloquence in every youthful Ame- 
rican freeman. The extracts are of a high order, and, in general, breathe the 
spirit of liberty and independence. Giving you my best wishes for the suc- 
cess of the work, I remain, very respectfully, yours, 

WILLIAM ALEXANDER. 

I have carefully examined " The American Speaker, by John Frost," and 
feel no hesitation in saying that I am highly pleased with the work. The 
rules and examples elucidating the principles of elocution, cannot fail to 
secure the advancement of the student in the difficult science of Oratory. I 
have already introduced it into my school. — With respect to Mr. J. Frost's 
" Abridgment of the History of the United States," I consider it extremely 
well calculated to give younser pupils a sufiicient knowledge of the history 
of their own country. ^ MICHAEL POWER. 

Baltimore, January 2, 1838. Principal of Asbury College 



[13] 



PINNOCK'S ENGLAND. 



PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. 

GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ENGL.AJXD, from the inva- 
sion of Julius Ceesar to the death of George IL, -with, a con- 
tinuation to the year 183S : with questions for examination at 
the end of each section ; besides a variety of vahiable information 
added throughout the work, consisting of Tables of Contempo- 
rary Sovereigns and Eminent Persons, copious Explanatory 
Notes, Remarks on the Politics, Manners, and Literature of the 
Age, and an Outline of the Constitution. Illustrated with 30 
Engra^ings on Wood. Fifteenth American, corrected and re- 
vised from the twenty-fourth English edition. 



RE002YIIVIENDATI0NS. 

Messrs. Key & Biddle, Philadelphia, Oct. 20, 1834. 

Gentlemen,— Bq pleased to accept my thanks for me favour you have done 
me ill sending a copy of your neat and attractive edition of Pinnock's Gold- 
smith's England. It appears to me to have been sedulously prepared for the 
purpose which it professes to subserve— that of a convenient manual for 
schools and academies. By the questions and tabular views at the ends of 
the several chapters, the scholar will be able to test his own acquisitions, and 
to embrace at a glance an important collection of facts, in regard to the his- 
tory and biography of the period of which he has been reading. These land- 
marks for the memxory serve to raise a host of reminiscences, all interesting to 
the diligent and inquiring student. With my wishes for the success of the 
work, accept the assurances of the high respect with which I subscribe my- 
self. Your obedient servant, 

WALTEPv K. JOHNSON, 
Professor of Mechanics ajid. Natural Philosophy 
in the Franklin Institute. 

From S. Jones, A.M., Principal of the Classical and Mathematical histitute^ 
Philadelphia. 

I have attentively examined Pinnock's improved edition of Dr. Goldsmith's 
History of England. pul3lished by INIessrs. Key & Biddle, of this city, and am 
impressed with its excellence. I have no hesitation in expressing my full 
approbation of the work, with my belief that it will receive a liberal patron- 
age from an enlightened conmiunity. S. JONES. 

ll/;i Month, 1834. 

I consider Pinnock's edition of Goldsmith's History of England as the best 
edition of that work which has yet been published for the use of schools. The 
tables of contemporary sovereigns and eminent persons, at the end of each 
chapter, afford the means of many useful remarks and comparisons with the 
history of other nations. With these views, I cheerfully recommend it as a 
took well adapted to school purposes. JUHN M. KEAGY. 

Friends' Academy, Philadelphia. 



[14] 



We fully concur in the opinion as ( 
SETH SMITH, 
J. H. BLACK, 
THOMAS COLLiNS, 
JAMES CPvOWELL, 
J. B. WAI>KEK, 
S. C. WALKER, 
T. H. WILSON, 
J. MADEIRA, 
WILLIAM MANN, 
W. MARRIOTT, 
C. B. TREGO, 
URIAH KITGHEN, 
THOMAS EUSTACE, 
JOHN HASLAM, 
W. CURRAN, 
J. STOCKDALE, 
S. H. REEVES, 
J. HAYMER, 
W. B. ROSE, 
CHARLES MEAD, 
BENJAP^IN MAYO, 
Rev. S. M. GAYLEY, Wil- 

minerton, Del. 
E. FOUSE, - 
J. E. SLACK, 
JOSEPH R. EASTBURN, 
A. STEVENSON, 



above. 

WILLIAM A. GARRIGUES, 

M. SOULE, 

Rev. CHARLES HENRY ALDEN 

JOHN EUSTACE, 

BENJAMIN C. TUCKER, 

HUGH MORROW, 

WILLIAM M'NAIR, 

E. H. HUBBARD, 

R. LAKE, 

JOHN WEBB, 

JOHN ORD, 

SAMUEL CLENDENIN, 

D. R. ASHTON, 

J. O'CONNOR, Secretary to the Phi 
ladelphia Association of Teachers. 

JOSEPH VMRREN, 

THOMAS CONRAD, 

THOMAS M'ADAM, 

Rev. SAMUEL W. CRAWFORD 
A.M., Principal of Academical Depu 
ol Univprsity of Pennsylvania. 

r.I. L. HURLBUT, 

R. W. CUSHMAN, 

AUGUSTINE LUDINGTON, 

JOHN ERHARDT, 

OLIVER A. SHAW, 

A. D. CLEA^ELAND. 



We fullv concur in the opinion 
SAMtJEL JONES, 
O. W. TREAD WELL, 
E. BENNETT, 
E. R. HARNEY, 
ROBERT O'NEILL, 
N. SPELMAN, 
S. W. ROSZELL, 
SAMUEL HUBBELL, 
H. O. V/ATTS, 

C. F. BANSEMER, 

D. E. REESE, 
S. A. CLARKE, 
JOHN FINLEY, A.M. 



Baltimore^ Dec. 1834 
above expressed, 

WILLIAM HAMILTON, 
JOSEPH WALKER, 
JAMES SHANLEY, 
DAVID RING, 
ROBERT WALKER, 
D. VV. B. M'CLELAN, 
S. A. DAVIS, 
JAMES F. GOULD, 
JOSEPH H. CLARKE, 
FRANCIS WATERS, 
JOHN MAGEE, 
MICHAEL POWER. 



Recommendations to the same general effect have been received from the 
following gentlemen : — 

SIMEON HART, Ju., Farmington, Conn. 

Rev. D. R. AUSTIN, Principal of Monmouth Academy, Monson, Mass. 

T. L. WRIGHT, A.M., Principal of East Hartford Classical and English 
School. 

Rev. N. W. FISKE, A.M., Professor Amherst College, Mass. 

E. S. SNELL, A.M., Professor Amherst CoUesro, Mass. 

Rev. S. north, Professor of Languages, Hamilton College, New York 

W. H. SCRAM, A.M., Principal of Classical and English Academy, Troy, 
New York. 

JAMES F. GOULD, Principal of Classical School, Baltimore. 

A. B. MYEPvS, Principal ct Whitehall Academy, New York. 
HORACE WTCBSTER, Professor Geneva College, New York. 
W. C. FOWLER. Professor Middlebury College, \^ermont. 

B. S. NOBLE, Bridgeport, Conn. 

Rev. S. B. HOWE, late President of Dickinson College. 
B. F. JOSLIN, Professor Union College, New York. 



[151 



PINNOCFS GREECE. 



PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR 

GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. Revised, cor 
rected, and very considerably enlarged, by the addition of several 
new chapters and numerous useful notes ; \\-ith questions for 
examination, at the end of each section. Revised from the 
twelfth London edition. With 30 engravings, by Atherton. 



REOOIVEIVXENDATIONS. 

Fhom Mr. N. Dodge, Teacher, South Eighth street. 
The edition of " Pinnock's History of Greece" on the basis of Goldsmith's, is, 
in my estimation, a work of superior merit. T!ie introductory chapters are 
especially valuable. The body of the work is srreatly improved ; and the 
continuation, though brief, supplies a want greatly felt by every reader at tue 
conclusion of the original work of Dr. Goldsmith. I shall introduce it into 
my seminary as the best text-book on the subject. 

N. DODG£. 
We fully concur in the opinions above expressed. 



THOMAS H. A\1LS0N, 
WM. ALEXANDER, A.M. 
JOHN SUMMONS, 
WILLIAi^I M'NAIR. 
EDWARD H. HUBBARD, 
EZEKIEL FOUSE, 
Rev. WM. MANN, A.M. 
J. MADEIRA, 
J. E. SLACK, 
L. W. BURNET, 
JOHN HASLAM, 
THO.MAS EUSTACE, 
JOHN EUSTACE, 
WILLIAM MARRIOTT, 
RIAL LAKE, 
THOMAS COLLINS, 
MATTHIAS NUGENT, 
SAMUEL CLENDENIN, 
JAMES CROWELL, 
WILLIAM B. ROSE, 



AUGUSTINE LUDINGTON, 

Rev. SAMUEL W. CRAWFORD 
A.M., Principal of the Acadl. Depl, 
of the University of Pennsylvania. 

THOMAS M'ADAM, 

THOMAS T. AZPELL, 

A. MITCHELL, 

H. MORROW, 

D. R. ASHTON. 

BENJAMIN C. TUCKER, 

ES. LEVY, 

WILLLAM ROBERTS, 

SAMUEL J. WILLEY, 

THOMAS BALDWIN, 

U. KITCHEN, 

M. L. H*URLBERT, 

SHEPHERD A. REET^S, 

EDMUND NEVILLE, 

NICHOLAS DONNELLY, 

WILLIAM A. GARRIGUES. 



[16] 



PINNOCFS ROME. 



PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR 
GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ROME. To which is pre 
fixed an Introduction to the Study of Roman History, and a great 
variety of information throughout the work on the Manners, 
Institutions, and Antiquities of the Romans ; with questions for 
examination, at the end of each section. Revised from the 
twelfth London edition, wdth additions and improvements. 
With 30 engravings, hy Atherton, 



HECOSHiyiENDATIONS. 

Having examined Pinnock's improved edition of Dr. Goldsmith's History 
of Rome, I unViesitatingly say, that the style and elesance of the language, 
the arrangement of the chapters, and the questions for examination, fender 
It, in my estimation, a most valuable school book :— I therefore most cheerfully 
recommend it to teachers, and do confidently trust that it will find an exten- 
sive introduction into the schools of our country. 

Baltimore, September 23, 1835. JAMES F. GOULD. 

We fully concur in the above recommendation. 

S. P. SKINNER, A. DINSMORE, 

C. H. ROBERTSON, JAMES WILKESON, 

ROBERT walker; JOSEPH H. CLARKE, 

WILLIAM HAMILTON S. A. CLARKE, 

DAVID RING, JOSEPH WALKER, 

JAMES E. SEARLEY, JAMES SHANLEY, 

SAMUEL ROSZEL, E. RHODES HARNEY, 

E. YEATES REESE, ROBERT O'NEILL, 

N. SPELMAN, MICHAEL POWER, 

B. WALSH, JOHN PRENTISS, 

PARDON DAVIS, EDWARD S. EBBS, 

SAMUEL HUBBELL, MICHAEL TONER. 
O. W. TREADWELL, 

Prmn Samuel Jones^ JL.M, Principal of the Classical and Mathematical 
Institute^ Philadelphia. 

A writer of so honourable a popularity as Dr. Goldsmith, for all the graces 
of an elegant, polished, and pure style and whose histories have been so long 
and so extensively useful to youth, certainly needs no encomium. It may be 
added, however, for the information of those teachers who are not acquainted 
with the improvements of Pinnock, that he has been for some time eminent 
in England for valuable additions to school books. Of the edition of Rome, by 
Messrs. Key & Biddleof this city, it is believed that it will be found superior, 
in the manner of " getting up," to any yet published in this country ; while 
its attractive appearance and mechanical execution lead me not only to hope, 



[17] 



rut confidently expect, that they will receive a liberal return for their inveat. 
ment. 
Philadelphia, September 15, 1835. SAMUEL JONES. 

P)'om J. M. Keagy, 3I.D., Principal of Fi'iends^ Academy^ Philadelphia. 

Pinnock's edition of "Goldsmith's Rome" has several very useful addi- 
tions ; the one an introduction, containing an abridged view of Roman 
Geography and Antiquities, and the other a very appropriate extension of 
Roman history to the subjugation of the empire by the Northern Barbarians. 
This improved edition of"" Goldsmith's Rome" will, no doubt /wtain its 
place in our schools as one of the best abridgments of the history of that 
interesting people. 

JOHN M. KEAGY. 

We fully concur in the above. 

THO]MAS BALD'v\n[N, F. M. LUBBREN, 

D. MAGENIS, Teacher of Elo- SHEPHERD A. REEVES, 

cution. JOHN HASLAM, 

WILLIAM A. GARRIGUES, E. FOUSE, 

CHARLES HENRY ALDEN, OLIVER A. SHAW, 

W. IMARRIOTT. M. L. HURLBERT, 

THOMAS CONARD, RIAL LAKE, 

URIAH KITCHEN, BENJAMIN MAYO, 

SETH SMITH, 1\1LLIAM M'NADl, 

J. D. GRISCOM, C. K. FROST, 

AUGUSTINE LUDINGTON, SAMUEL CLENDENIN, 

CHARLES B. TREGO, THOMAS COLLINS, 

THOilL^S EUSTACE, J. O'CONNOR, 

J. H. BROWN, JOHN STOCKDALE," 

JOHN STEEL, D. R. ASHTON, 

T. G. POTTS, BENJAMIN C. TUCKER, 

JOSEPH P. ENGLES, JAMES CROWELL, 

A\aLLIAM i\IANN, RICHARD M'CUNNEY, 

L. W. BURNET, J. E. SLACK, 

HUGH MORROW. CHARLES MEAD, 

JOSEPH EUSTACE, E. H. HUBBARD, 

M. A. CRITTENDEN, Princi- V. VALUE, 

pal of a Young Ladies' Semi- EDWARD POOLE. 

nary, Philadelphia. 

Recommendations to the same effect have been received from the foIlowin< 
gentlemen: 

SIMEON HART, Jr., Farmington, Conn. 

T. L. WRIGHT, East Hartford, Conn. 

Rev. N. W. FISKE, Professor Amherst College, Mass. 

D. R. AUSTIN, A.M., Principal of Monson Academy. 

Rsv. S. NORTH, Professor Hamilton College, New York. 

HORACE WEBSTER, Professor Geneva College, New York. 

B. G. NOBLE, Bridsfeport, Conn. 

Rev. S. B. HOWE, fate President of Dickinson College. 

B. F. JOSLTN. M.D., Professor Union College, New York. 
G. B. GLENDINNING, Troy, New York. 

J. P. BRACE, Principal of Hartford Female Academy. 

C. H. CALHOUN, A.M., Tutor William's College. 
GEORGE HALE, A.M., Tutor William's College. 

J. H. LATHROP, A.M., Professor Hamilton College, New York. 
A. N. SKINNER, New Haven, Conn. 

D. D WHEDON, Professor We'sleyan University, Middleton, Conn. 



[18J 

GUY ON ASTRONOMY, 
AND KEITH ON THE GLOBES 



GUY'S ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY, AND 

AN ABRIDGEMENT OF KEITH'S NEW TREATISE 
ON THE GLOBES. Thirteenth American edition, with 
additions and improvements, and an explanation of the astro- 
nomical part of the American Almanac. Illustrated with 
eighteen plates, drawn and engraved on steel, in the best man- 
ner. 



RECOWCaYEENDATIONS. 

Philadelphia, December, 1834. 
A volume containing Guy's popular treatise of Asironomy. ".lU Keith on 
the Globes, having been submitted to us for examination and carefully ex- 
amined, we can without any hesitation recommend it to tne notice and patron- 
age of parents and teachers. The work on Astronomy is clear, intelligible, and 
suited to the comprehension of young persons. It comprises a great amount 
of information, and is well illustrated with steel engravings. Keith on the 
Globes has long been recognised as a standard school book. The present 
edition, comprised in the same volume with the Astronomy, is improved by 
the omission of much extraneous matter, and the reduction of size and price. 
On the whole, we know of no school book which comprises so much in so 
little space as the new edition of Guy and Keith. 
THOMAS EUSTACE, ' W. B. ROSE, 

JOHN HASLAM. CHARLES MEAT), 

W. CURRAN, ' BENJAMIN MAYO, 

SAMUEL CLENDENIN, K. MORROW, 

SHEPHERD A. REEVES, J. H. BLACK, 

JOHN STOCKDALE, S. C. WALKER, 

J. B. WALKER, THOMAS COLLINS, 

J. E. SLACK, WM. MANN, 

JOSEPH R. EASTBURN, RIAL LAKE, 

WILLIAM M'NAIR, W. MARRIOTT, 

H. O. WATTS, C. B. TREGO, 

J. O'CONNOR, Secretary to the JOHN ERHARDT, 
Philadelphia Association of R. W. CUSHMAN, 
Teachers. THOMAS M'ADAM, 

B. N. LEWIS, Rev. SAMUEL W. CRAWTORD, 

Rev. CHAS. H. ALDEN, A.M., Principal of the Acadl. .-ept, 

BENJAMIN C. TUCKER, of the University of Pennsylvania. 

J. H. BROWN, O. A. SHAW, 

JOHN ORD, AUGUSTINE LUDINGTON, 

SETH SMITH, M. SOULE, 

WILLIAM ROBERTS, WILLIAM A. GARRIGUES, 

T. H. WILSON, M. L. HURLBERT 

JOSEPH WARREN, S. JONES, 



[19] 

Baltimore^ Dec, 1834. 1 
We fully concur in the opinion above expressed. 
E. BENNETT, JAMES SHANLEY, 

C. I- . BANSEMAR, DAVID RING, 

E. R. HARNEY, ROBERT WALKER, 

ROBERT O'NEILL, D. W. B. M'CLELAN, 

N. SPELIMAN. S. A. DAVIS. 

S. W. ROSZELL, JAMES F. GOULD, 

SAMUEL HUBBELL, JOSEPH H. CLARKE, A.M 

D. E. REESE, FRANCIS WATERS, 
S. A. CLARKE, JOHN MAGEE, 
JOSEPH WALKER, MICHAEL POWER, 
(). W. TREAD WELL, CD. CLEVELAND. 
Rev. S. M. GAYLEY, Wil- 

mington, Del. 

Willbrakam, Oct. 27, 1834. 
We have used Guy's Astronomy, and Keith on the Globes, as a text-book, 
during the past year; it is in all respects such an one as was wanted, and we 
have no disposition to exchange it for any other with which we are ac- 
quainted. AVM. G. MITCHELL, 
Lecturer on the Natural Sciences and Astrcnoniyi 
in Wesley an Academy, Mass. 

New York, Dec, 1834. 
We fully concur in the opinion above expressed. 

BERNARD THORNTON, W. M. SOINIERVILLE, 

HORACE COM£LL, NORTON THAYER. 

P. PERRINE, THOMAS GILDERSLIEVE, 

J. B. KIDDER, MELANCTHON HOYT, 

SOLO]MON JENNTIR, THOMAS V. FOWLER, 

JOSEPH M'KEEN, JOSEPH BAILE, 

C. CARTER, SAMUEL GARDNTER, 

LEONARD HAZELTINE, WILLL4M FORREST, 

JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN, C. W. NICHOLS, 

W. R. ADDINGTON, THOMAS I^PKEE, 

HENRY SWORDS, ADN. HEGEMAN, 

J. M. ELY, G. VALE. 

Recommendations of the same tenor have been received from the following 
gentlemen : 

Rev. D. R. AUSTIN, A.M., Principal of Monson Academy, Mass. 

T. L. WRIGHT, Principal of East Hartford Classical and English SchooL 

S. HART, Principal of Farmington Academy, Conn. 

C. D. WESTBROOK, D.D.. New Brunswick,' New Jersey. 

W. H. SCRAM, Principal of Classical Academy, Troy, New York. 

E. H. BURRITT, Author of the Geography of the Heavens, New Britain, 
Conn. 

WM. C. FO^VLER, Professor of Chemistry in Middlebury College, Ver- 
mont. 

B. S. NOBLE. Bridseix)rt, Conn. 

Rev. C. H. ALDE^, A.M., Principal of Philadelphia High School for Young 
Ladies. 

Rev. S. B. H0"V\^, late President of Dickinson College. 

Rev. Dr. WESTBROOK, Principal of Female Seminary and Rector of 
Rutgers' Collese Grammar School. 

Dr. B. F. JOSLIN, Professor Union Collesre, New York. 

GEORGE B. GLENT)INING, Principal of Young Ladies Academy, Troy, 
New York. 

M. CATLIN, A.M., Professor of Mathematics in Hamilton College, New 
York. 



[20] 



BRIDGE'S ALGEBRA. 



A TREATISE ON THE ELEMENTS OF AL- 
GEBRA. By Rev. B. Bhidge, D.D., F.R.S., Fellow of St. 
Peter's College, Cambridge, and late Professor of Mathematics 
in the East India College, Herts. Revised and corrected from 
the eighth London edition. 

In this work the hitherto abstract and difficult science of Algebra is sim- 
plified and illustrated so as to be attainable by the younger class of learners, 
and by those who have not the aid of a teacher. It is already introduced into 
ihe University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia; and the Western Uni- 
versity at Pittsburg. It is also the text-book of Gurnmere's School at Burling- 
ton, and Friends' College at Haverford, and of a great number of the be^t 
schools throughout the United States. It is equally adapted to cominon 
schools and colleges. 



REOOBII^EHDATIONS. 

Philadelphia, March 7, 1S33. 
Bridge's Algebra is the text-book in the school under my care ; and I am 
better pleased with it than with any which I have heretofore used. The 
author is very clear in his explanations, and systematic in his arrangement, 
and has succeeded in rendering a comparatively abstruse branch of science, 
an agreeable and interesting exercise both to pupil and teacher. 

JOHN FROST. 

We fully concur in the opinion above expressed. 

CHARLES HENRY ALDEN, JOSEPH WARREN 

J. O'CONNOR, Secretary to the SAMUEL CLENDENIN, 

Philadelphia Association of S. H. REEVES. 

Teachers. 

University of Pennsylvania, March 30, 18SS. 
Gentlemen, — In compliance with your request that I would give you my 
©pinion respecting your edition of Bridge's Algebra, I beg leave to say, tilat 
the work appears to be well adapted to the instruction of students. The ar- 
rangement of the several parts of the science is judicious, and the examples 
are numerous and well selected. 

Yours, respectfully, 

ROBERT ADRAIN. 

We fully concur in the opinion of Bridge's Algebra as expressed by Dr. 
Adrain. 

J. HAYMER, B. N. LEWIS, 

HUGH MORROW, JOHN STOCKDALE, 

WILLIAM M'NAIR, W. B. ROSE, 

OLIVER A. SHAW, BENJAMIN MAYO, 

SETH.SMITH, J. H. BLACK, 

SAMUiSL E. JONES, THOMAS M'ADAM, 

/N©. M. KEAGY, JOHN ERHARDT, 



[21] 

THOMAS CONARD, Rev. SAML. W. CRAWFORD, A.M^ 

THOxMAS COLLINS, Principal of th6 Academical Dept. 

J. E. SLACK, of ihe University of Pennsylvania. 

C. B. TREGO, R. W. CUSH:\LAN, 

J. B. WALKER, Rev. S. M. GAYLEY, Wilmington, 

JOHN HASLAM, Del. 

W. CURRAN, 

Baltimore^ December^ 1834. 

We fully concur in the opinion above expressed. 
E. BENNETT, O. W. TREADWELL, 

E. R. RARNEY, JOSEPH WALKER, 

ROBERT O'NEILL, DAVID RING, 

N. SPEL3IAN, ROBERT WALKER, 

S. W. ROSZELL, D. W. M'CLELAN, 

SAMUEL HUBBELL, S. A. DAVIS, 

H. O. WATTS, JOSEPH H. CLARKE, A.M. 

C. F. BANSEMER, FRANCIS WATERS, 

D. E. REESE, • JOHN 3IAGEE, 

S. A. CLARKE, mCHAEL POWER. 

Messrs. Key & Biddle : November 22, 1834. 

Gentlemen,— I have been highly gratified by an examination of " Bridge's 
Algebra," published by you ; and think it well entitled to general introduc- 
tion in our schools. I shall give it a preference in ray academy to any work 
I have seen. Respectfully, yours, 

J. H. BROWN, 
Principal of an English and Mathematical Academy 
No. 52 Cherry street, Philadelphia. 

New York, December, 1834. 
We fully concur in the opinion above expressed. 
P. PERRIN^, NORTON THAYER, 

J. B. KIDDER, THOMAS GILDERSLIEVE, 

S0L0310N JEXNER, IMELANCTHON HOYT, 

JOSEPH M'KEEN, THOMAS V. FOWLER, 

C. CARTER. JOSEPH BAH^E, 

LEONARD HAZELTINE, SAMUEL GARDNER, 

W. R. ADDINGTON, C. W. NICHOLS, 

HENRY SWORDS, THOiVLAS M'KEE. 

W. M. SOMERVILLE, 

The gentlemen named below have also sent the publishers strong recom- 
mendations of Bridge's Algebra: 

PROFESSOR E. A. ANDREWS, Mount Vernon Institute, Boston. 

Rev. C. DEWEY. Professor Berkshire Gymnasium, Mass. 

N. S. DODGE. Principal of Young Ladies' Seminary, Pittsfield, Mass. 

M. CATLIN. Professor of Mathematics, Hamilton College, New York. 

GEORGE ILALE, A.M., Tutor William's College, Mass. 

B. G. NOBLE. Bridgeport, Conn. 

Rev. D. R. AUSTIN, Principal of IMonson Academy, Mass. 

E. H. BURRITT, Author of the Geography of the Heavens, New Britain 
Conn. 

A. B. MYERS. Principal of Whitehall Academy, New York. 

THEODORE STRONG, Professor of Mathematics in Rutgers' College, 
New Jersey. 

Rev. S. NORTH, A.M., Professor Hamilton College, New York. 



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